Medium‐sized biomolecules, particularly lipids, can frequently be detected in ancient materials. The structures and compositions of mixtures of lipids can provide direct evidence for their origin, and hence, evidence for human activity in the past. An important concept in the field of biomolecular archaeology of lipids is that of ‘biomarkers’. Archaeological biomarkers are characteristic compounds (or mixtures of compounds) found in archaeological materials that can be matched to those present in contemporary materials likely to have been exploited in antiquity. Some of the general principles surrounding the use of lipid biomarkers, including their properties, origins, means of detection, characterization, modes of preservation and decay, and application to archaeological investigation, are discussed in this article. Examples are presented to illustrate the scope of the biomolecular archaeology of lipids and some remarks are made concerning possible areas of future development.

Biomolecular archaeology and lipids

Beeswax: Composition and Analysis

Hydrophobic compounds in sands in New Zealand—extraction, characterisation and proposed mechanisms for repellency expression

Lipid residues from two Late Saxon/early medieval ceramic vessels recovered from excavations at West Cotton, Raunds, Northamptonshire, U.K., have been investigated by high-temperature gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The solvent extracts of sherds sampled from different points on each vessel (i.e., base, body and rim) were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively and compounds were identified which were characteristic of beeswax and animal fat. Furthermore, by determining the sites of accumulation of the specific lipid types and their concentrations in different parts of the vessels it can be inferred that the beeswax was added to the vessels prior to the addition of the fat. It was concluded that the two vessels performed different functions in antiquity.

Evidence for the mixing of fats and waxes in archaeological ceramics

New Chemical Evidence for the Use of Combed Ware Pottery Vessels as Beehives in Ancient Greece

Gas liquid chromatographic analysis of unfractionated beeswax (treated with diazomethane) using Dexsil 300 as liquid phase gives a good separation of hydrocarbons, free fatty acids as methyl esters, and long chain monoesters. These components can be estimated using internal standards and together account for ca. 65% of the wax. Petroleum hydrocarbon or fatty acid adulterants can be detected. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are partially resolved from the corresponding saturated compounds.

A. P. Tulloch

Papers

Analysis of whole beeswax by gas liquid chromatography