https://www.hse.ru/data/816/479/1225/Oct%2019%20Cited%20%231%20Manage%20THE%20THEORY%20OF%20PLANNED%20BEHAVIOR.pdf

The theory of planned behavior

Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User

Valid measurement scales for predicting user acceptance of computers are in short supply. Most subjective measures used in practice are unvalidated, and their relationship to system usage is unknown. The present research develops and validates new scales for two specific variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, which are hypothesized to be fundamental determinants of user acceptance. Definitions of these two variables were used to develop scale items that were pretested for content validity and then tested for reliability and construct validity in two studies involving a total of 152 users and four application programs. The measures were refined and streamlined, resulting in two six-item scales with reliabilities of .98 for usefulness and .94 for ease of use. The scales exhibited hgih convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity. Perceived usefulness was significnatly correlated with both self-reported current usage r = .63, Study 1) and self-predicted future usage r = .85, Study 2). Perceived ease of use was also significantly correlated with current usage r = .45, Study 1) and future usage r = .59, Study 2). In both studies, usefulness had a signficnatly greater correaltion with usage behavior than did ease of use. Regression analyses suggest that perceived ease of use may actually be a causal antecdent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a parallel, direct determinant of system usage. Implications are drawn for future research on user acceptance.

Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology

The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived selfefficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.

Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

are caused by signs of progress early in a course of therapy. In the history of psychotherapy research , the expectancy construct emerged prematurely and without the empirical support necessary to establish its validity (Wilkins, 1973). In the absence of validating empirical evidence, subjective ex-pectancies remain interesting epiphe-nomena, rather than valid, causal mechanisms of placebo responses and fear reduction. (1975). The facilitative effect of muscle tension-release in the relaxation treatment of sleep disturbance.parison of heart rate biofeedback and systematic desensitization in reducing speech anxiety: Short-and long-term effectiveness, (1977). Comparative effectiveness of voluntary heart rate control and muscular relaxation as active coping skills for reducing speech anxiety. Cognition and desen-sitization in the group treatment of test anxiety. A comparison of EMG biofeedback and a credible pseudotherapy in treating tension headache.sign and assessment of nonspecific control groups in behavior modification research. Therapy outcome questions requiring control of credibility and treatment-generated expectancies. (1981). Comparison of cue-controlled desen-sitization, rational restructuring, and a credible placebo in the treatment of speech anxiety. Expectancy, false galvanic skin response feedback, and systematic desensi-tization in the modification of phobic behavior. Development and evaluation of a placebo for studies of op-erant behavioral intervention. Experimental desen-sitization following three types of instructions. (1973). The role of attention placebo influences in the efficacy of sys-tcmatic desensitization. A comparison of three fear reduction procedures. (1982). Cue-controlled relaxation and systematic desensiti-zation versus nonspecific factors in treating test anxiety. (1979). Differential outcome from automated assertion training as a function of locus of control. (1978). Influence of contextual cues on the efficacy of desen-sitization and a credible placebo in alleviating public speaking anxiety. (1973). Placebo versus social earning effects in parent training procedures designed to alter the behavior of aggressive boys. Effects of false feedback on avoidance behavior: \"Cognitive\" desen-sitization revisited. The belief that fear controls avoidance behavior dies hard, despite growing evidence to the contrary. In a recent article, Kirsch (November, 1985) argued in favor of this view in his comments regarding the role of perceived self-efficacy in phobic dys-functions. According to Kitsch, people take avoidant action because of expected fear. A large body of evidence disputes the notion that anticipatory fear regulates Such behavior is often performed without anticipatory fear arousal, and avoidance can persist long after fear of threats has been eliminated (Black, 1965; Reseorla & Solomon, 1967). No consistent relations have been found between changes in fear arousal and phobic behavior during the …

Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy.

The present experiment tested the hypothesis that self-regulation of refractory behavior varies as a function of goal proximity. Obese subjects were assigned to conditions in which they either monitored their eating behavior, monitored their eating behavior and set subgoals for reducing the amount of food consumed, or received no treatment. Within the goal-setting conditions, subjects adopted either distal goals defined in terms of weekly goal limits or proximal goals specifying the goal limits for each of four time periods during each day. Goal setting enhanced self-directed change as measured by reductions in both eating behavior and weight. The higher the goal attainments, the greater were the losses in weight. Proximal and distal goal setting yielded comparable overall results because the majority of subjects assigned remote goals altered this condition by adopting proximal goals to augment control over their own behavior. Within the distal goal-setting condition, the adherents to distal goals achieved relatively small changes, whereas those who improvised proximal subgoals for themselves attained substantial reductions on the multifaceted measures of self-directed change. The combined evidence lends support to the motivational and regulative functions of proximal intentions and highlights the reciprocal influence processes that operate in self-directed change.

The role of proximal intentions in self-regulation of refractory behavior

According to the status envy theory of identification recently proposed by J. W. M. Whiting, where a child competes unsuccessfully with an adult for affection, attention, food, and care, the child will envy the consumer adult and consequently identify with him. Whiting's theory represents an extension of the Freudian defensive identification hypothesis that identificatory behavior is the outcome of rivalrous interaction between the child and the parent who occupies an envied consumer status. In accordance with the social power theory of identification, but contrasting with the status envy hypothesis, one would predict that children will reproduce more of the behavior of the adult who controls positive reinforcers, and that power inversions on the part of the male and female models will produce cross-sex imitation. The secondary reinforcement theory of identification, which has been alluded to in the discussion of social power through attractiveness, has been elaborated in greatest detail by O. H. Mowrer.

A comparative test of the status envy, social power, and secondary reinforcement theories of identificatory learning.

Albert Bandura is a leading proponent of social cognitive theory, and
his work has directly inﬂuenced the development of the entertainmenteducation strategy. After receiving his doctoral degree from the University
of Iowa in 1953, he joined the faculty at Stanford University where he has
spent his entire career. His initial research centered on the prominent role
of social modeling in human thought, affect, and action. The extraordinary advances in the technology of communications have made modeling a key vehicle in the diffusion of ideas, values, and styles of behavior.
Another major focus of Bandura’s work concerns the human capacity for
self-directedness, which added to our understanding of how people exercise
inﬂuence over their own motivation and behavior through self-regulative
mechanisms. His most recent research is adding new insights on howpeople’s beliefs in their efﬁcacy to exercise control over events that affect
their lives contribute importantly to their attainments, resilience in the face
of adversity, and psychological well-being. These different lines of research
address fundamental issues concerning the nature of human agency.

Albert Bandura

Papers

Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy.

The role of proximal intentions in self-regulation of refractory behavior

A comparative test of the status envy, social power, and secondary reinforcement theories of identificatory learning.

Social Cognitive Theory for Personal and Social Change by Enabling Media

Transmission of patterns of self-reinforcement through modeling.