Bong Ho Mok

Bio: Bong Ho Mok is an academic researcher from The Chinese University of Hong Kong. The author has contributed to research in topics: Public policy & Subjective well-being. The author has an hindex of 3, co-authored 3 publications receiving 61 citations.

Subjective Well-Being, Societal Condition and Social Policy – The Case Study of a Rich Chinese Society

Abstract: The article looks at whether or not social policy and other societal-condition variables contribute to the subjective well-being of life satisfaction. It firstly argues that social policy needs to pay more attention to the study of subjective well-being. Then, it reviews the literature and finds that people in rich societies generally have higher levels of life satisfaction. But the findings of a social survey on the level of and variance in life satisfaction in a rich Chinese society reveal the contrary. The empirical data reflects a life satisfaction pattern along strong income and class lines. It also confirms that social policy and other societal-condition variables have different degrees of impact on life satisfaction. At last, implications of the findings for social policy are discussed.

How Filipina Maids Are Treated in Hong Kong—A Comparison Between Chinese and Western Employers

Abstract: This study compares Chinese and Western employers in Hong Kong in terms of their treatment of Filipina domestic helpers in four major areas: atmosphere of work environment, consideration, social psychological distance, and personal space. The data were based on in-depth and structured interviews, mainly with Filipina helpers who have served both types of employers. A few Chinese and Western employers were also interviewed. The findings indicate that the Filipina maids, in general, are more satisfied with their Western employers, who tend to provide them with an easier and more comfortable work environment; are more considerate; are more likely to treat them on equal terms; and to allow them more personal space. Within group variations in the treatment of maids are greater among Chinese employers than Western employers. This means that, in terms of the treatment of Filipina maids, Western employers in Hong Kong are more homogeneous and tend to concentrate on the positive side, whereas Chinese employers are more diversified.

Measuring Mutual Help Willingness and Criteria among Hong Kong People: Confirmatory Factor Analyses

Abstract: Mutual help has been often found to be beneficial for people’s well-being in clinical settings. Research in the general population, however, is relatively limited, partly due to the lack of applicable measurement tools. The present study attempted to develop two scales to measure mutual help willingness and criteria and test their psychometric properties among a community sample of Hong Kong people (n = 951). Confirmatory factor analyses suggested that the hypothetical models fitted the data very well. Results also indicated that though the willingness to seek help and to give help was significantly correlated, Hong Kong people were generally more willing to give help than to seek help. Age had a negative effect on help-seeking willingness, which can not be explained by education level. A set of criteria were applied similarly when people decided on help-giving and help-seeking. Agreement with the criteria was negatively correlated with age but the associations became negligible when education level was controlled. Research and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Bicultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: immigration-based and globalization-based acculturation.

Abstract: The present investigation examined the impact of bicultural identity, bilingualism, and social context on the psychological adjustment of multicultural individuals. Our studies targeted three distinct types of biculturals: Mainland Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong, Filipino domestic workers (i.e., sojourners) in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong and Mainland Chinese college students. Individual differences in Bicultural Identity Integration (BII; Benet-Martinez, Leu, Lee, & Morris, 2002) positively predicted psychological adjustment for all the samples except sojourners even after controlling for the personality traits of neuroticism and self-efficacy. Cultural identification and language abilities also predicted adjustment, although these associations varied across the samples in meaningful ways. We concluded that, in the process of managing multiple cultural environments and group loyalties, bilingual competence, and perceiving one's two cultural identities as integrated are important antecedents of beneficial psychological outcomes.

The China Puzzle: Falling Happiness in a Rising Economy

Abstract: Over the 1990–2000 decade happiness in China plummeted despite massive improvement in material living standards. This finding contradicts the notion that income growth at low living standards leads to gains, not losses, in happiness. We explain this puzzle by drawing on a specific version of relative deprivation theory, the concept of “frustrated achievers.” Our major finding is that income inequality in China became increasingly skewed towards the upper income strata, so that related to the average income the financial position of most Chinese worsened. Consequently, financial dissatisfaction rose and became an increasingly important factor in depressing happiness. Other negative feelings emerging with rapid transitions, such as anomie and disaffection, show a less depressive effect on Chinese happiness. We conclude with some speculations about the applicability of our findings to transition economies in general.

Feminized Migration in East and Southeast Asia: Policies, Actions and Empowerment

Abstract: Desde la decada de 1980, la migracion laboral ha venido feminizandose cada vez en mayor medida en el este y sudeste asiaticos. Para principios del siglo XXI, se estimaba que habia mas de dos millones de mujeres trabajando en la region, lo que constituye un tercio de la poblacion migrante. Casi todas las mujeres migrantes se desempenan en labores reproductivas, como el trabajo domestico y los servicios sexuales, en hogares de particulares y sectores comerciales informales. No obstante la gran necesidad de proteger su bienestar y sus derechos humanos, los gobiernos de los paises de destino ven a los migrantes simplemente como una fuerza laboral que se requiere para cubrir la escasez de mano de obra local, e ignora las medidas de proteccion y las politicas en funcion del genero. Por su parte, bajo la presion para incrementar los ingresos de divisas extranjeras, los paises que constituyen la fuente de esta fuerza laboral alientan a sus mujeres a migrar y a remitir sus ganancias, pero ante la competencia mundial, los gobiernos de estos paises han mostrado poco interes en el bienestar de las mujeres migrantes. En el contexto de los antecedentes poco alentadores en materia de derechos humanos de los paises del este y sudeste asiaticos, los actores no estatales han adquirido una importancia creciente en la defensa de los derechos de los migrantes, lo que han logrado a traves de redes locales y transnacionales. Las raices de la migracion–feminizada y que por lo tanto tiene en cuenta consideraciones de genero–en el este y sudeste asiaticos se encuentran en el rapido pero desigual desarrollo economico de la region, caracterizado por la desigualdad y el conflicto que producen las diferencias de genero, clase social y nacionalidad. La transferencia de mujeres extranjeras de la region desde economias de bajos ingresos (Filipinas, Tailandia, Indonesia y Viet Nam, entre otros) hacia paises de altos ingresos (Singapur, Malasia, la Region Administrativa Especial de Hong Kong, Taiwan Provincia de China, la Republica de Corea y Japon) intensifica la actual desigualdad de genero, injusticia economica y discriminacion etnica. Sin embargo, la migracion internacional es un proceso contradictorio que, si bien brinda a las mujeres migrantes oportunidades para la movilidad social, tambien las somete a abusos y explotacion. La mayoria de las mujeres migrantes son trabajadoras independientes empleadas por contrato que buscan trabajo en el exterior a fin de aumentar los ingresos familiares y sus ahorros personales. El empoderamiento resulta de su resistencia diaria a las estructuras de poder existentes, asi como de la oportunidad de acumular recursos personales y colectivos. El analisis de las politicas de inmigracion de Asia y de los patrones de migracion de las mujeres revela que existen seis categorias de mujeres migrantes con sus respectivas caracteristicas: • trabajadoras domesticas • animadoras (trabajadoras sexuales) • trabajadoras no autorizadas • esposas inmigrantes • trabajadoras capacitadas • trabajadoras que comparten un patrimonio etnico con la poblacion que las recibe (como los brasilenos de origen japones en el Japon y los chinos de ascendencia coreana en la Republica de Corea). Estas seis categorias de mujeres migrantes se diferencian entre si en razon de las condiciones de traslado al otro pais, de empleo y de proteccion legal, por lo que difieren en cuanto a las formas en que enfrentan las practicas desiguales y discriminatorias que encuentran en sus lugares de destino. En consecuencia, los ciudadanos conscientes y las organizaciones no gubernamentales recurren a diferentes acciones civiles y contramedidas para mejorar los derechos de las mujeres migrantes. Los gobiernos de los estados importadores de mano de obra del este y sudeste asiaticos tienen niveles distintos de tolerancia politica frente a las actividades de la sociedad civil, por lo que existen diferencias importantes en cuanto a las capacidades y los recursos con que cuentan sus sociedades civiles para la accion colectiva. La bibliografia sobre este tema identifica tres niveles de efectividad de las acciones civiles y de la resistencia de la mujer en Asia. El primer nivel agrupa a Singapur y Malasia, donde la aplicacion de estrictas politicas de inmigracion, rigidos sistemas de contratacion laboral y bajos grados de tolerancia del activismo civico por parte del Estado limitan seriamente las acciones a favor de las trabajadoras migrantes. El segundo nivel reune al Japon y la Republica de Corea, donde los estrictos controles fronterizos y las grandes cantidades de trabajadores, combinados con un relativamente alto grado de tolerancia de la accion colectiva, permiten a muchos grupos y organizaciones desafiar la autoridad del Estado y brindar asistencia legal y cultural a los trabajadores migrantes. En el tercer nivel se encuentra la Region Administrativa Especial de Hong Kong, donde, a pesar de una estricta politica de inmigracion y un rigido sistema de contratacion laboral, el legado colonial britanico permite a los trabajadores migrantes defender abiertamente sus derechos economicos y emprender acciones colectivas. La frecuencia de las manifestaciones de trabajadoras migrantes, en particular de las trabajadoras domesticas filipinas en Hong Kong, destaca la importancia de establecer redes transnacionales que permitan estrechar los vinculos entre los trabajadores migrantes en los paises fuentes de la mano de obra y las naciones receptoras. La creciente presencia de un movimiento transnacional de proteccion en toda la region de Asia facilita los esfuerzos de las organizaciones civiles por mejorar los derechos y el bienestar de las trabajadoras migrantes. En conclusion, la feminizacion de la migracion ha incrementado la desigualdad y la injusticia basadas en el genero, la clase social y la nacionalidad en Asia. Pero al mismo tiempo, ha abierto nuevas oportunidades para que las mujeres migrantes puedan aumentar los ingresos familiares y la creciente sociedad civil de Asia pueda desafiar las politicas y practicas opresivas que afectan a las trabajadoras migrantes. A pesar de que persisten muchos obstaculos legales e institucionales a la justicia social en los paises que importan mano de obra, las acciones civiles de ciudadanos y trabajadores migrantes constituyen un paso importante hacia el reconocimiento de los derechos de las trabajadoras migrantes.

Income Inequality and its Consequences for Life Satisfaction: What Role do Social Cognitions Play?

Abstract: While it is generally agreed that income inequality affects an individual’s well-being, researchers disagree on whether people living in areas of high income disparity report more or less happiness than those in more equal environments, thereby indicating the need to study how and why income inequality matters to the individual’s well-being. Findings on group-specific reaction patterns to income inequality further fuel this need. Alesina et al. (2004) argue that a preference for inequality and the perception of the possibility of social mobility account for the indistinct relationship between income inequality and subjective well-being. Combining this hypothesis with previous research on social cognition and drawing on social justice theory, this paper aims to demonstrate the mediating nature of perceptions of income inequality. It argues that the perceived legitimacy of distributive outcomes and procedures contributes to how income inequalities affect individuals and their sense of well-being. The empirical analysis is based on data from the International Social Justice Project, developed from face-to-face interviews with a representative sample of the German population. Using structural equation modeling, the paper finds structural biases in the perception of income inequality. The paper concludes that subjective well-being is a product of the individual’s perception and legitimating processes. The results indicate that social cognition is a useful tool for studies of income inequality and subjective well-being.