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Bridget Shield

Bio: Bridget Shield is an academic researcher from London South Bank University. The author has contributed to research in topics: Noise & Environmental noise. The author has an hindex of 18, co-authored 46 publications receiving 1662 citations.

Papers
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of classroom noise on children's academic performance and annoyance due to classroom noise levels are discussed. But the authors highlight inconsistencies and discrepancies between the results of various studies and highlight some current acoustic standards for classrooms.
Abstract: This paper reviews research on issues relating to the effects of noise on children at school. Areas covered include factors affecting speech intelligibility in the classroom; the effects of environmental and classroom noise on children's academic performance; children's annoyance due to noise; and surveys of classroom noise levels. Consistencies and discrepancies between the results of various studies are highlighted. The paper concludes by outlining some current acoustic standards for classrooms.

333 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: External noise was found to have a significant negative impact upon performance, the effect being greater for the older children, and Linear regression analysis has been used to estimate the maximum levels of external and internal noise which allow the schools surveyed to achieve required standards of literacy and numeracy.
Abstract: While at school children are exposed to various types of noise including external, environmental noise and noise generated within the classroom. Previous research has shown that noise has detrimental effects upon children's performance at school, including reduced memory, motivation, and reading ability. In England and Wales, children's academic performance is assessed using standardized tests of literacy, mathematics, and science. A study has been conducted to examine the impact, if any, of chronic exposure to external and internal noise on the test results of children aged 7 and 11 in London (UK) primary schools. External noise was found to have a significant negative impact upon performance, the effect being greater for the older children. The analysis suggested that children are particularly affected by the noise of individual external events. Test scores were also affected by internal classroom noise, background levels being significantly related to test results. Negative relationships between performance and noise levels were maintained when the data were corrected for socio-economic factors relating to social deprivation, language, and special educational needs. Linear regression analysis has been used to estimate the maximum levels of external and internal noise which allow the schools surveyed to achieve required standards of literacy and numeracy.

324 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It was found that noise levels inside classrooms depend upon the activities in which the children are engaged, with a difference of 20 dB L(Aeq) between the "quietest" and "noisiest" activities.
Abstract: Internal and external noise surveys have been carried out around schools in London, UK, to provide information on typical levels and sources to which children are exposed while at school. Noise levels were measured outside 142 schools, in areas away from flight paths into major airports. Here 86% of the schools surveyed were exposed to noise from road traffic, the average external noise level outside a school being 57 dB L(Aeq). Detailed internal noise surveys have been carried out in 140 classrooms in 16 schools, together with classroom observations. It was found that noise levels inside classrooms depend upon the activities in which the children are engaged, with a difference of 20 dB L(Aeq) between the "quietest" and "noisiest" activities. The average background noise level in classrooms exceeds the level recommended in current standards. The number of children in the classroom was found to affect noise levels. External noise influenced internal noise levels only when children were engaged in the quietest classroom activities. The effects of the age of the school buildings and types of window upon internal noise were examined but results were inconclusive.

243 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of typical classroom noise on the performance of primary school children on a series of literacy and speed tasks were explored. And the processes underlying these effects are considered and the implications of the results for children's attainments and classroom noise levels are explored.
Abstract: There is general concern about the levels of noise that children are exposed to in classroom situations. We report the results of a study that explores the effects of typical classroom noise on the performance of primary school children on a series of literacy and speed tasks. One hundred and fifty eight children in six Year 3 classes participated in the study. Classes were randomly assigned to one of three noise conditions. Two noise conditions were chosen to reflect levels of exposure experienced in urban classrooms (Shield & Dockrell, 2004): noise by children alone, that is classroom–babble, and babble plus environmental noise, babble and environmental. Performance in these conditions was compared with performance under typical quiet classroom conditions or base. All analyses controlled for ability. A differential negative effect of noise source on type of task was observed. Children in the babble and environmental noise performed significantly worse than those in the base and babble conditions on speed of processing tasks. In contrast, performance on the verbal tasks was significantly worse only in the babble condition. Children with special educational needs were differentially negatively affected in the babble condition. The processes underlying these effects are considered and the implications of the results for children’s attainments and classroom noise levels are explored.

220 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results of a large-scale questionnaire survey that ascertained children's perceptions of their noise environment and the relationships of the childrens perceptions to objective measures of noise was established through the use of convergent measures.
Abstract: This paper describes the results of a large-scale questionnaire survey that ascertained children’s perceptions of their noise environment and the relationships of the children’s perceptions to objective measures of noise. Precision, specificity, and consistency of responding was established through the use of convergent measures. Two thousand and thirty-six children completed a questionnaire designed to tap (a) their ability to discriminate different classroom listening conditions; (b) the noise sources heard at home and at school; and (c) their annoyance by these noise sources. Teachers completed a questionnaire about the classroom noise sources. Children were able to discriminate between situations with varying amounts and types of noise. A hierarchy of annoying sound sources for the children was established. External LAmax levels were a significant factor in reported annoyance, whereas external LA90 and LA99 levels were a significant factor in determining whether or not children hear sound sources. Obj...

104 citations


Cited by
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01 Mar 2011
TL;DR: Differences in health literacy level were consistently associated with increased hospitalizations, greater emergency care use, lower use of mammography, lower receipt of influenza vaccine, poorer ability to demonstrate taking medications appropriately, poorer able to interpret labels and health messages, and, among seniors, poorer overall health status and higher mortality.
Abstract: Objectives To update a 2004 systematic review of health care service use and health outcomes related to differences in health literacy level and interventions designed to improve these outcomes for individuals with low health literacy. Disparities in health outcomes and effectiveness of interventions among different sociodemographic groups were also examined. Data sources We searched MEDLINE®, the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, the Cochrane Library, PsychINFO, and the Educational Resources Information Center. For health literacy, we searched using a variety of terms, limited to English and studies published from 2003 to May 25, 2010. For numeracy, we searched from 1966 to May 25, 2010. Review methods We used standard Evidence-based Practice Center methods of dual review of abstracts, full-text articles, abstractions, quality ratings, and strength of evidence grading. We resolved disagreements by consensus. We evaluated whether newer literature was available for answering key questions, so we broadened our definition of health literacy to include numeracy and oral (spoken) health literacy. We excluded intervention studies that did not measure health literacy directly and updated our approach to evaluate individual study risk of bias and to grade strength of evidence. Results We included good- and fair-quality studies: 81 studies addressing health outcomes (reported in 95 articles including 86 measuring health literacy and 16 measuring numeracy, of which 7 measure both) and 42 studies (reported in 45 articles) addressing interventions. Differences in health literacy level were consistently associated with increased hospitalizations, greater emergency care use, lower use of mammography, lower receipt of influenza vaccine, poorer ability to demonstrate taking medications appropriately, poorer ability to interpret labels and health messages, and, among seniors, poorer overall health status and higher mortality. Health literacy level potentially mediates disparities between blacks and whites. The strength of evidence of numeracy studies was insufficient to low, limiting conclusions about the influence of numeracy on health care service use or health outcomes. Two studies suggested numeracy may mediate the effect of disparities on health outcomes. We found no evidence concerning oral health literacy and outcomes. Among intervention studies (27 randomized controlled trials [RCTs], 2 cluster RCTs, and 13 quasi-experimental designs), the strength of evidence for specific design features was low or insufficient. However, several specific features seemed to improve comprehension in one or a few studies. The strength of evidence was moderate for the effect of mixed interventions on health care service use; the effect of intensive self-management inventions on behavior; and the effect of disease-management interventions on disease prevalence/severity. The effects of other mixed interventions on other health outcomes, including knowledge, self-efficacy, adherence, and quality of life, and costs were mixed; thus, the strength of evidence was insufficient. Conclusions The field of health literacy has advanced since the 2004 report. Future research priorities include justifying appropriate cutoffs for health literacy levels prior to conducting studies; developing tools that measure additional related skills, particularly oral (spoken) health literacy; and examining mediators and moderators of the effect of health literacy. Priorities in advancing the design features of interventions include testing novel approaches to increase motivation, techniques for delivering information orally or numerically, "work around" interventions such as patient advocates; determining the effective components of already-tested interventions; determining the cost-effectiveness of programs; and determining the effect of policy and practice interventions.

952 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The effects of music training in relation to brain plasticity have caused excitement, evident from the popularity of books on this topic among scientists and the general public as discussed by the authors, which suggests that, akin to physical exercise and its impact on body fitness, music is a resource that tones the brain for auditory fitness.
Abstract: The effects of music training in relation to brain plasticity have caused excitement, evident from the popularity of books on this topic among scientists and the general public. Neuroscience research has shown that music training leads to changes throughout the auditory system that prime musicians for listening challenges beyond music processing. This effect of music training suggests that, akin to physical exercise and its impact on body fitness, music is a resource that tones the brain for auditory fitness. Therefore, the role of music in shaping individual development deserves consideration.

855 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The evidence from this review does not provide a clear endorsement for the positive effects of inclusion and there is a lack of evidence from appropriate studies and, where evidence does exist, the balance was only marginally positive.
Abstract: Background. Inclusive education/mainstreaming is a key policy objective for the education of children and young people with special educational needs (SEN) and disabilities. Aims. This paper reviews the literature on the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming. The focus is on evidence for effects in terms of child outcomes with examination also of evidence on processes that support effectiveness. Samples. The review covers a range of SEN and children from pre-school to the end of compulsory education. Method. Following an historical review of evidence on inclusive education/mainstreaming, the core of the paper is a detailed examination of all the papers published in eight journals from the field of special education published 2001-2005 (N = 1373): journal of Special Education, Exceptional Children, Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, journal of Learning Disabilities, Remedial and Special Education, British journal of Special Education, European journal of Special Needs Education, and the International journal of Inclusive Education. The derived categories were: comparative studies of outcomes: other outcome studies; non-comparative qualitative studies including non-experimental case studies; teacher practice and development; teacher attitudes; and the use of teaching assistants. Results. Only 14 papers (1.0%) were identified as comparative outcome studies of children with some form of SEN. Measures used varied but included social as well as educational outcomes. Other papers included qualitative studies of inclusive practice, some of which used a non-comparative case study design while others were based on respondent's judgements, or explored process factors including teacher attitudes and the use of teaching assistants. Conclusions. Inclusive education/mainstreaming has been promoted on two bases: the rights of children to be included in mainstream education and the proposition that inclusive education is more effective. This review focuses on the latter issue. The evidence from this review does not provide a clear endorsement for the positive effects of inclusion. There is a lack of evidence from appropriate studies and, where evidence does exist, the balance was only marginally positive. It is argued that the policy has been driven by a concern for children's rights. The important task now is to research more thoroughly the mediators and moderators that support the optimal education for children with SEN and disabilities and, as a consequence, develop an evidence-based approach to these children's education.

621 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The technique presented in this work enables designers to undertake a preliminary analysis of a simulated reverberant environment without the need for time-consuming image-method simulations.
Abstract: A method is proposed that provides an approximation of the acoustic energy decay (energy–time curve) in room impulse responses generated using the image-source technique. A geometrical analysis of the image-source principle leads to a closed-form expression describing the energy decay curve, with the resulting formula being valid for a uniform as well as nonuniform definition of the enclosure’s six absorption coefficients. The accuracy of the proposed approximation is demonstrated on the basis of impulse-response simulations involving various room sizes and reverberation levels, with uniform and nonuniform sound absorption coefficients. An application example for the proposed method is illustrated by considering the task of predicting an enclosure’s reflection coefficients in order to achieve a specific reverberation level. The technique presented in this work enables designers to undertake a preliminary analysis of a simulated reverberant environment without the need for time-consuming image-method simulations.

338 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of classroom noise on children's academic performance and annoyance due to classroom noise levels are discussed. But the authors highlight inconsistencies and discrepancies between the results of various studies and highlight some current acoustic standards for classrooms.
Abstract: This paper reviews research on issues relating to the effects of noise on children at school. Areas covered include factors affecting speech intelligibility in the classroom; the effects of environmental and classroom noise on children's academic performance; children's annoyance due to noise; and surveys of classroom noise levels. Consistencies and discrepancies between the results of various studies are highlighted. The paper concludes by outlining some current acoustic standards for classrooms.

333 citations