抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

+ Abstract: Statistical parametric maps are spatially extended statistical processes that are used to test hypotheses about regionally specific effects in neuroimaging data. The most established sorts of statistical parametric maps (e.g., Friston et al. (1991): J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:690-699; Worsley et al. 119921: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:YOO-918) are based on linear models, for example ANCOVA, correlation coefficients and t tests. In the sense that these examples are all special cases of the general linear model it should be possible to implement them (and many others) within a unified framework. We present here a general approach that accommodates most forms of experimental layout and ensuing analysis (designed experiments with fixed effects for factors, covariates and interaction of factors). This approach brings together two well established bodies of theory (the general linear model and the theory of Gaussian fields) to provide a complete and simple framework for the analysis of imaging data. The importance of this framework is twofold: (i) Conceptual and mathematical simplicity, in that the same small number of operational equations is used irrespective of the complexity of the experiment or nature of the statistical model and (ii) the generality of the framework provides for great latitude in experimental design and analysis.

/pdf/statistical-parametric-maps-in-functional-imaging-a-general-3e3ee6im7g.pdf

Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: A general linear approach

Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain—3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging, J. Talairach, P. Tournoux. Georg Thieme Verlag, New York (1988), 122 pp., 130 figs. DM 268

https://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~karl/Voxel-Based%20Morphometry.pdf

Voxel-Based Morphometry—The Methods

https://users.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/~jesper/papers/readgroup_071009/Ashburner07.pdf

A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm

http://mriquestions.com/uploads/3/4/5/7/34572113/language_review1-s2.0-s1053811912004703-main.pdf

A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading

This article illustrates how functional neuroimaging can be used to test the validity of neurological and cognitive models of language. Three models of language are described: the 19th Century neurological model which describes both the anatomy and cognitive components of auditory and visual word processing, and 2 20th Century cognitive models that are not constrained by anatomy but emphasise 2 different routes to reading that are not present in the neurological model. A series of functional imaging studies are then presented which show that, as predicted by the 19th Century neurologists, auditory and visual word repetition engage the left posterior superior temporal and posterior inferior frontal cortices. More specifically, the roles Wernicke and Broca assigned to these regions lie respectively in the posterior superior temporal sulcus and the anterior insula. In addition, a region in the left posterior inferior temporal cortex is activated for word retrieval, thereby providing a second route to reading, as predicted by the 20th Century cognitive models. This region and its function may have been missed by the 19th Century neurologists because selective damage is rare. The angular gyrus, previously linked to the visual word form system, is shown to be part of a distributed semantic system that can be accessed by objects and faces as well as speech. Other components of the semantic system include several regions in the inferior and middle temporal lobes. From these functional imaging results, a new anatomically constrained model of word processing is proposed which reconciles the anatomical ambitions of the 19th Century neurologists and the cognitive finesse of the 20th Century cognitive models. The review focuses on single word processing and does not attempt to discuss how words are combined to generate sentences or how several languages are learned and interchanged. Progress in unravelling these and other related issues will depend on the integration of behavioural, computational and neurophysiological approaches, including neuroimaging.

https://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/people/academic/thomas_m/msccogneuro/Price2000.pdf

The anatomy of language: contributions from functional neuroimaging

In this review of 100 fMRI studies of speech comprehension and production, published in 2009, activation is reported for: prelexical speech perception in bilateral superior temporal gyri; meaningful speech in middle and inferior temporal cortex; semantic retrieval in the left angular gyrus and pars orbitalis; and sentence comprehension in bilateral superior temporal sulci. For incomprehensible sentences, activation increases in four inferior frontal regions, posterior planum temporale, and ventral supramarginal gyrus. These effects are associated with the use of prior knowledge of semantic associations, word sequences, and articulation that predict the content of the sentence. Speech production activates the same set of regions as speech comprehension but in addition, activation is reported for: word retrieval in left middle frontal cortex; articulatory planning in the left anterior insula; the initiation and execution of speech in left putamen, pre-SMA, SMA, and motor cortex; and for suppressing unintended responses in the anterior cingulate and bilateral head of caudate nuclei. Anatomical and functional connectivity studies are now required to identify the processing pathways that integrate these areas to support language.

/pdf/the-anatomy-of-language-a-review-of-100-fmri-studies-5axw9qxeya.pdf

The anatomy of language: a review of 100 fMRI studies published in 2009.

http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~karl/Detecting%20Activations%20in%20PET%20and%20fMRI.pdf

Detecting Activations in PET and fMRI: Levels of Inference and Power

THE relationship between the semantic processing of words and of pictures is a matter of debate among cognitive scientists1,2. We studied the functional anatomy of such processing by using positron-emission tomography (PET). We contrasted activity during two semantic tasks (probing knowledge of associations between concepts, and knowledge of the visual attributes of these concepts) and a baseline task (discrimination of physical stimulus size), performed either with words or with pictures. Modality-specific activations unrelated to semantic processing occurred in the left inferior parietal lobule for words, and the right middle occipital gyrus for pictures. A semantic network common to both words and pictures extended from the left superior occipital gyrus through the middle and inferior temporal cortex to the inferior frontal gyrus. A picture-specific activation related to semantic tasks occurred in the left posterior inferior temporal sulcus, and word-specific activations related to semantic tasks were localized to the left superior temporal sulcus, left anterior middle temporal gyrus, and left inferior frontal sulcus. Thus semantic tasks activate a distributed semantic processing system shared by both words and pictures, with a few specific areas differentially active for either words or pictures.

/pdf/functional-anatomy-of-a-common-semantic-system-for-words-and-5eztnd82m7.pdf

Cathy J. Price

Papers

A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading

The anatomy of language: contributions from functional neuroimaging

The anatomy of language: a review of 100 fMRI studies published in 2009.

Detecting Activations in PET and fMRI: Levels of Inference and Power

Functional anatomy of a common semantic system for words and pictures