抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

We argue that an understanding of the faculty of language requires substantial interdisciplinary cooperation. We suggest how current developments in linguistics can be profitably wedded to work in evolutionary biology, anthropology, psychology, and neuroscience. We submit that a distinction should be made between the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLB)and in the narrow sense (FLN) . FLB includes a sensory-motor system, a conceptual-intentional system, and the computational mechanisms for recursion, providing the capacity to generate an infinite range of expressions from a finite set of elements. We hypothesize that FLN only includes recursion and is the only uniquely human component of the faculty of language. We further argue that FLN may have evolved for reasons other than language, hence comparative studies might look for evidence of such computations outside of the domain of communication (for example, number, navigation, and social relations).

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The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?

There is a bewildering diversity of signals, sensory systems, and signaling behavior. A consideration of how these traits affect each other's evolution explains some of this diversity. Natural selection favors signals, receptors, and signaling behavior that maximize the received signals relative to background noise and minimize signal degradation. Properties of sensory systems bias the direction of evolution of the signals that they receive. For example, females may prefer males whose signals they can perceive more easily, and this will lead to the spread of more easily perceived male traits. Environmental conditions during signal transmission and detection also affect signal perception. Specific environmental conditions will bias the evolutionary direction of behavior, which affects the time and place of signaling as well as microhabitat preferences. Increased specialization of microhabitats and signaling behavior may lead to biased evolution of the sensory systems to work more efficiently. Thus, sensory...

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Signals, signal conditions, and the direction of evolution

Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol. 2007;12(4):343-5 (1) Pós-graduanda em Lingüística e Língua Portuguesa pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais – PUC-Minas – Belo Horizonte (MG), Brasil; Professora da Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais – PUCMinas – Belo Horizonte (MG), Brasil. Endereço para correspondência: Denise Brandão de Oliveira e Britto. R. Desembargador Jorge Fontana, 250/1201, bloco 1, Belvedere, Belo Horizonte – MG, CEP 30320-670. E-mail: denisebrandao@pucminas.br The faculty of language

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The faculty of language

https://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/jackendoff/papers/FacultyofLanguage.pdf

The faculty of language: what's special about it? ☆

The acoustic characteristics of three tropical habitats were investigated to determine how they might constrain the structure of primate signals. Ambient noise was measured, along with signal attenuation and aspects of signal degradation (reverberation, amplitude fluctuations, and pulse train modulation depth). These measures allowed estimation of the effects of habitat acoustics on the distances over which calls would be audible (the "active space") and over which primates could reliably transmit amplitude-modulated or pulse-coded information.

Habitat acoustics and primate communication

Old world monkey vocalizations: adaptation to the local habitat?

Mangabey groups studied in the Kibale Forest Reserve, Uganda, in 1971 were studied again in 1991 using similar data collection protocols. The results were used to assess the effect of group size on activity budgets and travel costs, and to document the effects of habitat changes on mangabey density and demography. Larger mangabey groups traveled longer distances per day than smaller groups. Time budgets were less clearly influenced by group size. Mangabey population density increased over the 20 year period. This increase in population density paralleled habitat changes, particularly an increase in tree density, and was accompanied by increased use of regenerating forest. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Mangabey (Cercocebus albigena) population density, group size, and ranging: A twenty‐year comparison

It has long been asserted that habitat acoustics can determine the frequency band bestadapted for long-range communication, but the generality and validity of measurements claiming to demonstrate a “window” of best frequencies have recently been questioned. We report the discovery of a prominent sound window in Kenyan rain forest in a study that is free of methodological difficulties. Our results allow us to calculate the range advantage attained by an animal vocalizing within the sound window, and show that sound windows can be a potent factor for the evolution of primate communication.

Charles H. Brown

Papers

Habitat acoustics and primate communication

Old world monkey vocalizations: adaptation to the local habitat?

Mangabey (Cercocebus albigena) population density, group size, and ranging: A twenty‐year comparison

Is there a “sound window” for primate communication?

Hearing and communication in blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis)