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The Determination of Clutch-Size in Birds a Review

This paper presents a list, compiled from the literature, of bird species in which intraspecific nest parasitism (INP) occurs. INP was reported in 234 species: one Struthioniformes, two Tinamiformes, two Procellariiformes, six Podicipediiformes, five Ciconiiformes, one Phoenicopteriformes, 74 Anseriformes, one Falconiformes, 32 Galliformes, eight Gruiformes, 19 Charadriiformes, nine Columbiformes, five Cuculiformes, two Apodiformes, one Coraciiformes and 66 Passeriformes. Hence, INP is very common among precocial species, and less so among altricials. Irrespective of this, most INP birds are colonial.

An updated list and some comments on the occurrence of intraspecific nest parasitism in birds

Conspecific nest parasitism is much more common in birds that have self-feeding young than in those with parentally fed young. We review evidence for this pattern and suggest that it is produced by...

The distribution of conspecific nest parasitism in birds

THE natural incubation environment of wild Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) has received little deterministic study. Prince et al. (1969a) considered the general effect of temperature and humidity under artificial conditions upon Mallard embryos. Batt and Cornwell (1972) intensively investigated the effect of cold on Mallard embryos, while Snart (1970) studied the upper thermal limits of Mallard embryos. They found Mallard embryos much more tolerant of cold than of heat. The above research employed artificial incubation and environmental chamber treatments. The present study was undertaken to describe more adequately the natural incubation environment of Mallard eggs and the hen behavior that produces this environment. Incubation behavior has been more thoroughly studied in avian species other than waterfowl. The incubation period is divided into attentive and inattentive periods which are related to species and clutch size (Skutch 1962). Incubation behavior and attentiveness are also affected by external stimuli (Kossack 1950, Kropivniui 1968, Barry 1962). Kendeigh (1952) reviewed the general daily rhythm of attentiveness to the nest by Anatids. Semenov-Tyan-Shanski and Bragin (1969) studying incubation behavior of Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca) and Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) found the duck spent 1/7 to 1/8 of the incubation period off the nest. Cooper (1976) in an intensive study of Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) breeding behavior, found the female spent 98.5% of the incubation period on the nest. Kossack (1950) reported egg wetting in Canada Geese but the function of such behavior is unclear. McKinney (1952) described Mallard behavior patterns resulting in egg movements. Drent (1970) found Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs maintained relatively constant orientation to gravitational forces, but they were frequently moved by the adult. Egg turning by the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), a cavity nester, occurred about once a day (Stewart 1971). Temperatures of naturally incubated bird eggs and nests have been investigated frequently, but little work has been done with waterfowl species. Egg temperatures were recorded for the Canada Goose (Kossack 1947, Cooper 1976) and Wood Duck (Breckenridge 1956).

Incubation Behavior and Temperatures of the Mallard Duck

-I examined the influence of age and time on female reproductive performance in a marked population of Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) breeding in southwestern Manitoba from 1977 to 1980. Arrival date and length of prelaying period varied among years but were not related to female age. Rate of nonbreeding and nest-initiation date varied among years and by female age. Age variation in nonbreeding was due to the failure of yearlings and a few 2-yr-olds to breed. Yearlings began laying an average of 5-8 days later than older females. Clutch size increased with female age but showed no significant annual variation despite extreme changes in water conditions. Reproductive performance generally increased with female age and with improving water conditions. These results were consistent with theoretical models that predict that reproductive effort (RE) increases with age or with declining residual reproductive value. My data support Williams' (1966) prediction that organisms adapted to living in variable environments adjust their RE in relation to probability of success. Female Lesser Scaup exhibited a temporally dynamic reproductive strategy, and natural selection seemingly has favored "yes-if" genes (Williams 1966) that effect breeding only when conditions are favorable for the individual. Received 27 April 1983, accepted 3 October 1983. PARENTAL age and breeding experience influence the reproductive performance of many avian species (Lack 1966, Klomp 1970, Ryder 1980). Among waterfowl, several breeding parameters may vary with age, including spring arrival date, nesting chronology, and clutch size (e.g. Sowls 1955, Finney and Cooke 1978, Krapu and Doty 1979, Baillie and Milne 1982, Rockwell et al. 1983). Reproductive performance of waterfowl also varies annually in response to fluctuating environmental conditions in breeding, wintering, and migration areas (e.g. Crissey 1969, Bengtson 1971, Heitmeyer and Fredrickson 1981, Davies and Cooke 1983, Krapu et al. 1983). Female age and prairie drought are important factors influencing reproduction of Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis; Rogers 1959, 1964; Trauger 1971). Nonbreeding and age at first breeding in this species have been discussed and speculated upon (see Trauger 1971: 87), but specific factors affecting these breeding parameters re1 Present address: Wetland Wildlife Populations and Research Group, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 102 23rd Street, Bemidji, Minnesota 56601 USA. main obscure due to insufficient information on known-age individuals. Trauger (1971) reported that productivity, measured by the proportion of returning marked hens that were later observed with broods, increased with female age from 1 to 4 yr. The consistent low productivity of yearling females was attributed to poor nesting success and nonbreeding (Trauger 1971: 78). I collected reproductive information on a marked population of Lesser Scaup breeding in southwestern Manitoba from 1977 to 1980, a period during which wetland conditions varied dramatically. In this paper, I examine the influence of age and time on the reproductive performance of females. Breeding parameters estimated were: (1) arrival date, (2) rate of nonbreeding, (3) length of prelaying period, (4) nest-initiation date, (5) clutch size, (6) nest success, (7) rate of renesting, and (8) brood survival. Results are discussed in relation to predictions of theoretical models concerning agespecific and temporal variation in reproductive effort. STUDY AREA AND METHODS The 777-ha study area was located 3.3 km southeast of Erickson, Manitoba (50'30'N, 99?55'W) and was de255 The Auk 101: 255-265. April 1984 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.131 on Sat, 15 Oct 2016 04:33:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 256 ALAN D. AFTON [Auk, Vol. 101 TABLE 1. Comparisons of selected environmental parameters and spring arrival dates of Lesser Scaup, 19771980.

Influence of Age and Time on Reproductive Performance of Female Lesser Scaup

This study of the breeding h-abits of the Canada goose (Branta cana,densis) was initiated in thle sprilng of 1944 by the writer and Carlton Beckhart; the writer continued the work from the spring of 1946 to the fall of 1948. Most of the data were obtained on Bright Land Farm near Barrington, Cook County, Illinois, for the period 1944 to 1946, from a flock of 2 50 birds, of which approximately 25 per cent were full-winged and the remainder wing-clipped or pinioned. Some data were gathcred from sources other than Bright Land Fann during the study. Emphasis was placed on tne breeding behavior of a goose once mated and then separated from its mate because of death or other reasons.

Charles W. Kossack

Papers

Breeding Habits of Canada Geese Under Refuge Conditions