Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism

‘The Production of Space’, in: Frans Jacobi, Imagine, Space Poetry, Copenhagen, 1996, unpaginated.

The Production of Space

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The Practice Of Everyday Life

The theory of affordances

The OpenStreetMap project is a knowledge collective that provides user-generated street maps. OSM follows the peer production model that created Wikipedia; its aim is to create a set of map data that's free to use, editable, and licensed under new copyright schemes. A considerable number of contributors edit the world map collaboratively using the OSM technical infrastructure, and a core group, estimated at approximately 40 volunteers, dedicate their time to creating and improving OSM's infrastructure, including maintaining the server, writing the core software that handles the transactions with the server, and creating cartographical outputs. There's also a growing community of software developers who develop software tools to make OSM data available for further use across different application domains, software platforms, and hardware devices. The OSM project's hub is the main OSM Web site.

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OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps

Given the long history of map-making and its scientific and scholarly traditions
one might expect the study of cartography and mapping theory to be relatively
moribund pursuits with long established and static ways of thinking about
and creating maps. This, however, could not be further from the truth. As
historians of cartography have amply demonstrated, cartographic theory and
praxis has varied enormously across time and space, and especially in recent
years. As conceptions and philosophies of space and scientific endeavour
have shifted so has how people come to know and map the world.
Philosophical thought concerning the nature of maps is of importance
because it dictates how we think about, produce and use maps; it shapes our
assumptions about how we can know and measure the world, how maps
work, their techniques, aesthetics, ethics, ideology, what they tell us about
the world, the work they do in the world, and our capacity as humans to
engage in mapping. Mapping is epistemological but also deeply ontological
– it is both a way of thinking about the world, offering a framework for
knowledge, and a set of assertions about the world itself. This philosophical
distinction between the nature of the knowledge claims that mapping is able
to make, and the status of the practice and artefact itself, is intellectually
fundamental to any thinking about mapping.
In this opening chapter we explore the philosophical terrain of contemporary
cartography, setting out some of the reasons as to why there are a diverse
constellation of map theories vying for attention and charting some significant
ways in which maps have been recently theorized. It is certainly the case that maps are enjoying something of a renaissance in terms of their popularity,
particularly given the various new means of production and distribution.
New mapping technologies have gained the attention of industry, government
and to some extent the general public keen to capitalize on the growing
power, richness and flexibility of maps as organizational tools, modes of
analysis and, above all, compelling visual images with rhetorical power. It
is also the case that maps have become the centre of attention for a diverse
range of scholars from across the humanities and social sciences interested
in maps in-and-of-themselves and how maps can ontologically and epistemologically
inform other visual and representational modes of knowing and
praxis. From a scientific perspective, a growing number of researchers in
computer science and engineering are considering aspects of automation of
design, algorithmic efficiency, visualization technology and human interaction
in map production and consumption.
These initiatives have ensured that mapping theory over the past twenty
years has enjoyed a productive period of philosophical and practical
development and reflection. Rather than be exhaustive, our aim is to
demonstrate the vitality of present thinking and practice, drawing widely
from the literature and signposting relevant contributions among the essays
that follow. We start the chapter by first considering the dimensions across
which philosophical differences are constituted. We then detail how maps
have been theorized from within a representational approach, followed by
an examination of the ontological and epistemological challenges of postrepresentational
conceptions of mapping.

Thinking about maps

The Editors. Preface. Acknowledgements. Colour Plate One: Cartographic Production. Section One Conceptualising Mapping. 1.1 Introductory Essay: Conceptualising Mapping (Rob Kitchin, Martin Dodge and Chris Perkins). 1.2 General Theory, from Semiology of Graphics (Jacques Bertin). 1.3 On Maps and Mapping, from The Nature of Maps: Essays Toward Understanding Maps and Mapping (Arthur H. Robinson and Barbara B. Petchenik). 1.4 The Science of Cartography and its Essential Processes (Joel L. Morrison). 1.5 Analytical Cartography (Waldo R. Tobler). 1.6 Cartographic Communication (Christopher Board). 1.7 Design on Signs / Myth and Meaning in Maps (Denis Wood and John Fels). 1.8 Deconstructing the Map (J.B. Harley). 1.9 Drawing Things Together (Bruno Latour). 1.10 Cartography Without 'Progress': Reinterpreting the Nature and Historical Development of Mapmaking (Matthew H. Edney). 1.11 Exploratory Cartographic Visualisation: Advancing the Agenda (Alan M. MacEachren and Menno-Jan Kraak). 1.12 The Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique and Invention (James Corner). 1.13 Beyond the 'Binaries': A Methodological Intervention for Interrogating Maps as Representational Practices (Vincent J. Del Casino Jr. and Stephen P. Hanna). 1.14 Rethinking Maps (Rob Kitchin and Martin Dodge). Colour Plate Two: Mapping the Internet. Section Two Technologies of Mapping. 2.1 Introductory Essay: Technologies of Mapping (Martin Dodge, Rob Kitchin and Chris Perkins). 2.2 A Century of Cartographic Change, from Technological Transition in Cartography (Mark S. Monmonier). 2.3 Manufacturing Metaphors: Public Cartography, the Market, and Democracy (Patrick H. McHaffie). 2.4 Maps and Mapping Technologies of the Persian Gulf War (Keith C. Clarke). 2.5 Automation and Cartography (Waldo R. Tobler) 2.6 Cartographic Futures on a Digital Earth (Michael F. Goodchild). 2.7 Cartography and Geographic Information Systems (Phillip C. Muehrcke). 2.8 Remote Sensing of Urban/Suburban Infrastructure and Socio-Economic Attributes (John R. Jensen and Dave C. Cowen). 2.9 Emergence of Map Projections, from Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections (John P. Synder). 2.10 Mobile Mapping: An Emerging Technology for Spatial Data Acquisition (Rongxing Li). 2.11 Extending the Map Metaphor Using Web Delivered Multimedia (William Cartwright). 2.12 Imaging the World: The State of Online Mapping (Tom Geller). Colour Plate Three: Pictorial Mapping. Section Three Cartographic Aesthetics and Map Design. 3.1 Introductory Essay: Cartographic Aesthetics and Map Design (Chris Perkins, Martin Dodge and Rob Kitchin). 3.2 Interplay of Elements, from Cartographic Relief Presentation (Eduard Imhof). 3.3 Cartography as a Visual Technique, from The Look of Maps (Arthur H. Robinson). 3.4 Generalisation in Statistical Mapping (George F. Jenks). 3.5 Strategies for the Visualisation of Geographic Time-Series Data (Mark Monmonier). 3.6 The Roles of Maps, from Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization and Design (Alan M. MacEachren). 3.7 Area Cartograms: Their Use and Creation (Daniel Dorling). 3.8 ColorBrewer.org: An Online Tool for Selecting Colour Schemes for Maps (Mark Harrower and Cynthia A. Brewer). 3.9 Maps, Mapping, Modernity: Art and Cartography in the Twentieth Century (Denis Cosgrove). 3.10 Affective Geovisualisations (Stuart Aitken and James Craine). 3.11 Egocentric Design of Map-Based Mobile Services (Liqiu Meng). 3.12 The Geographic Beauty of a Photographic Archive (Jason Dykes and Jo Wood). Colour Plate Four: Visualising Cartographic Colour Schemes and Mapping Spatial Information Space. Section Four Cognition and Cultures of Mapping. 4.1 Introductory Essay: Cognition and Cultures of Mapping (Chris Perkins, Rob Kitchin and Martin Dodge). 4.2 Map Makers are Human: Comments on the Subjective in Maps (John K. Wright). 4.3 Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behaviour: Process and Products (Roger M. Downs and David Stea). 4.4 Natural Mapping (James M. Blaut). 4.5 The Map as Biography: Thoughts on Ordnance Survey Map, Six-Inch Sheet Devonshire CIX, SE, Newton Abbot (J.B. Harley). 4.6 Reading Maps (Eileen Reeves). 4.7 Mapping Reeds and Reading Maps: The Politics of Representation in Lake Titicaca (Benjamin S. Orlove). 4.8 Refiguring Geography: Parish Maps of Common Ground (David Crouch and David Matless). 4.9 Understanding and Learning Maps (Robert Lloyd). 4.10 Citizens as Sensors: The World of Volunteered Geography (Michael F. Goodchild). 4.11 Usability Evaluation of Web Mapping Sites (Annu-Maaria Nivala, Stephen Brewster and L. Tiina Sarjakoski) Colour Plate Five: Visualising the Efforts of Volunteer Cartographers. Section Five Power and Politics of Mapping. 5.1 Introductory Essay: Power and Politics of Mapping (Rob Kitchin, Martin Dodge and Chris Perkins). 5.2 The Time and Space of the Enlightenment Project, from The Condition of Postmodernity (David Harvey). 5.3 Texts, Hermeneutics and Propaganda Maps (John Pickles). 5.4 Mapping: A New Technology of Space Geo-Body, from Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Thongchai Winichakul). 5.5 First Principles of a Literary Cartography, from Territorial Disputes: Maps and Mapping Strategies in Contemporary Canadian and Australian Fiction (Graham Huggan). 5.6 Whose Woods are These? Counter-Mapping Forest Territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Nancy Lee Peluso). 5.7 A Map that Roared and an Original Atlas: Canada, Cartography, and the Narration of Nation (Matthew Sparke). 5.8 Cartographic Rationality and the Politics of Geosurveillance and Security (Jeremy W. Crampton). 5.9 Affecting Geospatial Technologies: Toward a Feminist Politics of Emotion (Mei-Po Kwan). 5.10 Queering the Map: The Productive Tensions of Colliding Epistemologies (Michael Brown and Larry Knopp). 5.11 Mapping the Digital Empire: Google Earth and the Process of Postmodern Cartography (Jason Farman). Colour Plate Six: Cartographies of Protest. Index.

The Map Reader: Theories of Mapping Practice and Cartographic Representation

1. Thinking about Maps 2. Rethinking Maps and Identity: Choropleths, Clines and Biopolitics 3. Rethinking Maps from a More-than-human Perspective: Nature-society, Mapping, and Conservation Territories 4. Web Mapping 2.0 5. Modelling the Earth: A Short History 6. Theirwork: The Development of Sustainable Mapping 7. Cartographic Representation and the Construction of Lived Worlds: Understanding Cartographic Practice as Embodied Knowledge 8. The 39 Steps and the Mental Map of Classical Cinema 9. The Emotional Life of Maps and Other Visual Geographies 10. Playing with Maps 11. Ce N'est Pas le Monde [This is Not the World] 12. Mapping Modes, Methods and Moments: A Manifesto for Map Studies

Rethinking maps: new frontiers of cartographic theory

Cartography: mapping theory

For my last progress report, I have chosen to focus upon changing approaches to map use and mapping practices. I am prompted by the appearance of several theme issues of journals and a number of important books to focus in greater detail on recent research linking culture to the mapping process and in particular to some of the changing ways in which the power of mapping is practised, contested and subverted, but also by a recent resurgence of public interest in the history of mapping, shown by the publication of mass-market 'mapping tales' relating biography to histories of cartography. The former are increasingly informed by a nonrepresentational theory that is at once critical but also concerned with culture and politics, while the latter reflect a continuing public interest in the iconic role of maps in geography, seemingly at variance to geographers' contemporary obsession with writing and theory. This variance forms the second theme in this article. Theoreticians of the new critical cartography usually employ words to extol the virtues of socially informed critiques of mappings, leaving to other people the messy and contingent process of creating mapping as visualizations. The discursive power of the word seems increasingly hegemonic in geographic literature, despite geographical interest in the visual and occasional clarion calls to the contrary (e.g., Lilley, 2000). Analysis and deconstruction predominates over creation. The central argument of this piece and the justification for printing an extravagant, contested and complex mapped image in this review straddles these two themes. How have geographers' cartographic anxieties related to other envisionings, and to the increasingly confident literature emerging around enacted performative mappings and practices? How might everyday context, culture and practice relate to the

Chris Perkins

Papers

Thinking about maps

The Map Reader: Theories of Mapping Practice and Cartographic Representation

Rethinking maps: new frontiers of cartographic theory

Cartography: mapping theory

Cartography: cultures of mapping, power in practice