INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES IN INTERGROUP BEHAVIOR 3 From Individual to Group Impressions 3 GROUP MEMBERSHIP AND INTERGROUP BEHAVIOR 7 The Scope and Range of Ethnocentrism 8 The Development of Ethnocentrism 9 Intergroup Conflict and Competition 12 Interpersonal and intergroup behavior 13 Intergroup conflict and group cohesion 15 Power and status in intergroup behavior 16 Social Categorization a d Intergroup Behavior 20 Social categorization: cognitions, values, and groups 20 Social categorization a d intergroup discrimination 23 Social identity and social comparison 24 THE REDUCTION FINTERGROUP DISCRIMINATION 27 Intergroup Cooperation and Superordinate Goals " 28 Intergroup Contact. 28 Multigroup Membership and "lndividualizat~’on" of the Outgroup 29 SUMMARY 30

Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations

Three aspects of the self(private, public, collective) with different probabilities in different kinds of social environments were sampled. Three dimensions of cultural variation (individualism--collectivism, tightness-looseness, cultural complexity) are discussed in relation to the sampling of these three aspects of the self. The more complex the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the public and private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. The more individualistic the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. Collectivism, external threat, competition with outgroups, and common fate increase the sampling of the collective self. Cultural homogeneity results in tightness and in the sampling of the collective self. The article outlines theoretical links among aspects of the environment, childrearing patterns, and cultural patterns, which are linked to differential sampling of aspects of the self. Such sampling has implications for social behavior. Empirical investigations of some of these links are reviewed.

The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Contexts

This survey of attitude theory and research published between 1996 and 1999 covers the conceptualization of attitude, attitude formation and activation, attitude structure and function, and the attitude-behavior relation. Research regarding the expectancy-value model of attitude is considered, as are the roles of accessible beliefs and affective versus cognitive processes in the formation of attitudes. The survey reviews research on attitude strength and its antecedents and consequences, and covers progress made on the assessment of attitudinal ambivalence and its effects. Also considered is research on automatic attitude activation, attitude functions, and the relation of attitudes to broader values. A large number of studies dealt with the relation between attitudes and behavior. Research revealing additional moderators of this relation is reviewed, as are theory and research on the link between intentions and actions. Most work in this context was devoted to issues raised by the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior. The present review highlights the nature of perceived behavioral control, the relative importance of attitudes and subjective norms, the utility of adding more predictors, and the roles of prior behavior and habit.

http://psych415.class.uic.edu/Readings/Ajzen,%20Attitude%20theory,%20AnnRevPsy,%202001.pdf

Nature and Operation of Attitudes

In social psychology, we need to establish a general theory of the self which can attend to both macro and micro processes, and which avoids the redundancies of separate theories on different aspects of the self For this purpose, we present core components of identity theory and social identity theory and argue that although differences exist between the two theories, they are more differences in emphasis than in kind, and that linking the two theories can establish a more fully integrated view of the self The core components we examine include the different bases of identity (category/group or role) in each of the theories, identity salience and the activation of identities as discussed in the theories, and the cognitive and motivational processes that emerge from identities based on category/group and on role. By examining the self through the lens of both identity theory and social identity theory, we see how, in combination, they can move us toward a general theory of the self In contrast to Hogg and his colleagues (Hogg, Terry, and White 1995), we see substantial similarities and overlap between social identity theory and identity theory. We think that this overlap ultimately will cause these theories to be linked in fundamental ways, though we do not think that time has

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2695870.pdf

Identity theory and social identity theory

Work on general attitudes has drawn attention to the roles of attitude accessibility, controlled versus automatic information processing, and biases in information processing produced by automatically activated general attitudes towards objects. However, early failures to demonstrate strong attitude-behavior relations were shown to be attributable to incompatibility in the level of generality at which these variables were assessed. General attitudes toward policies, people, institutions, and events correlate well with general behavioral patterns but not with specific behaviors. Predicting specific actions requires a measure of attitude toward the behavior itself, as in the reasoned action approach, which takes specific behavior as its starting point and identifies intentions, attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control as important determinants. In addition to discussing those topics, this chapter reviews major meta-analyses of the attitude-behavior relation.

The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior

How likely people are to think of themselves in terms of a given personal characteristic is predicted from the distinctiveness postulate that the person, when confronted by a complex stimulus (such as the self), selectively notices and encodes the stimulus in terms of what is most peculiar about it, since these peculiar characteristics are the most informative in distinguishing it from other stimuli. This partial view of the person as an information-encoding machine (one is conscious of oneself insofar as, and in the ways that, one is different) is used to derive four predictions implying that ethnic identity is salient in children's spontaneous self-concepts to the extent that their ethnic group is in the minority in their social milieu at school. Our measure of salience of ethnicity was its being spontaneously mentioned by the children in response to a nondirective "Tell us about yourself" question. All four predictions were confirmed, though for several of the findings there are plausible alternative explanations.

Salience of ethnicity in the spontaneous self-concept as a function of one's ethnic distinctiveness in the social environment.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the experience of self by the person at particular reflective moments, on the ways the content and process of the phenomenal sense of self are affected by situational and dispositional variables. Content issues concern when one's myriad aspects are salient (available) in thought and when one asks oneself who one is; process issues concern the person's modes of thinking about this self content. The chapter discusses the content and process, by the nouns and verbs, respectively that occur in free self-descriptions. Some of the ways in which methods differ from the usual reactive approach to study the self is described in the chapter. The present research program employs tedious content analyses of open-ended responses for the rich content and process information they yield, justifying the greater effort. The chapter explains the way the salience of these physical characteristics in spontaneous self-descriptions is affected, not only by their distinctiveness but also by other factors such as gender and age.

Content and Process in the Experience of Self

Effects of household sex composition on the salience of one's gender in the spontaneous self-concept.

The content, structure, and operation of thought systems

Insofar as people organize information about and evaluations of important topics in connected and coherent systems, attitudes may be changed from within by enhancing the salience of information already present virtually within the person's belief system without communicating new information from outside sources. A cognitive positivity bias is predicted such that stimulus evaluation (e.g., self-esteem) is affected more by characteristics that the stimulus possesses than by ones it lacks. Experiment 1 tested relations between participants' momentary self-esteem and concurrently salient desirable (vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (vs. lacked). Experiments 2 and 3 changed participants' self-esteem by using directed-thinking tasks to manipulate the salience of desirable (vs. undesirable) self-characteristics possessed (and, to a lesser extent, lacked).

Claire V. McGuire

Papers

Salience of ethnicity in the spontaneous self-concept as a function of one's ethnic distinctiveness in the social environment.

Content and Process in the Experience of Self

Effects of household sex composition on the salience of one's gender in the spontaneous self-concept.

The content, structure, and operation of thought systems

Enhancing self-esteem by directed-thinking tasks: cognitive and affective positivity asymmetries.