This paper describes a reformulation of the Lighthill (1952) theory of aerodynamic sound. A revised approach to the subject is necessary in order to unify the various ad hoc procedures which have been developed for dealing with aerodynamic noise problems since the original appearance of Lighthill's work. First, Powell's (1961 a) concept of vortex sound is difficult to justify convincingly on the basis of Lighthill's acoustic analogy, although it is consistent with model problems which have been treated by the method of matched asymptotic expansions. Second, Candel (1972), Marble (1973) and Morfey (1973) have demonstrated the importance of entropy inhomogeneities, which generate sound when accelerated in a mean flow pressure gradient. This is arguably a more significant source of acoustic radiation in hot subsonic jets than pure jet noise. Third, the analysis of Ffowcs Williams & Howe (1975) of model problems involving the convection of an entropy ‘slug’ in an engine nozzle indicates that the whole question of excess jet noise may be intimately related to the convection of flow inhomogeneities through mean flow pressure gradients. Such problems are difficult to formulate precisely in terms of Lighthill's theory because of the presence of an extensive, non-acoustic, non-uniform mean flow. The convected-entropy source mechanism is actually absent from the alternative Phillips (1960) formulation of the aerodynamic sound problem.In this paper the form of the acoustic propagation operator is established for a non-uniform mean flow in the absence of vortical or entropy-gradient source terms. The natural thermodynamic variable for dealing with such problems is the stagnation enthalpy. This provides a basis for a new acoustic analogy, and it is deduced that the corresponding acoustic source terms are associated solely with regions of the flow where the vorticity vector and entropy-gradient vector are non-vanishing. The theory is illustrated by detailed applications to problems which, in the appropriate limit, justify Powell's theory of vortex sound, and to the important question of noise generation during the unsteady convection of flow inhomogeneities in ducts and past rigid bodies in free space. At low Mach numbers wave propagation is described by a convected wave equation, for which powerful analytical techniques, discussed in the appendix, are available and are exploited.Fluctuating heat sources are examined: a model problem is considered and provides a positive comparison with an alternative analysis undertaken elsewhere. The difficult question of the scattering of a plane sound wave by a cylindrical vortex filament is also discussed, the effect of dissipation at the vortex core being taken into account.Finally an approximate aerodynamic theory of the operation of musical instruments characterized by the flute is described. This involves an investigation of the properties of a vortex shedding mechanism which is coupled in a nonlinear manner to the acoustic oscillations within the instrument. The theory furnishes results which are consistent with the playing technique of the flautist and with simple acoustic measurements undertaken by the author.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0022112075002777

Contributions to the theory of aerodynamic sound, with application to excess jet noise and the theory of the flute

https://www.colonius.caltech.edu/pdfs/ColoniusLele2004.pdf

Computational aeroacoustics: progress on nonlinear problems of sound generation

The Lighthill acoustic analogy, as embodied in the Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings (FW-H) equation, is compared with the Kirchhoff formulation for moving surfaces. A comparison of the two governing equations reveals that the primary advantage of the Kirchhoff formulation (namely, that nonlinear flow effects are included in the surface integration) is also available to the FW-H method if the integration surface used in the FW-H equation is not assumed to be impenetrable. The FW-H equation is analytically superior for aeroacoustics because it is based on the conservation laws of fluid mechanics rather than on the wave equation. Thus, the FW-H equation is valid even if the integration surface is in the nonlinear region. This advantage is demonstrated numerically. With the Kirchhoff approach, substantial errors can result if the integration surface is not positioned in the linear region, and these errors may be hard to identify. Finally, new metrics, based on the Sobolev norm, are introduced that may be used to compare input data for both quadrupole noise calculations and Kirchhoff noise predictions.

/pdf/analytical-comparison-of-the-acoustic-analogy-and-kirchhoff-2q3rzc3u4b.pdf

Analytical Comparison of the Acoustic Analogy and Kirchhoff Formulation for Moving Surfaces

Basic principles of aerodynamic noise generation

https://www.cs.odu.edu/~mln/ltrs-pdfs/NASA-2003-pas-ksb.pdf

Modeling aerodynamically generated sound of helicopter rotors

Monograph on sound generation by turbulence and surfaces in arbitrary motion, discussing sound and multipole fields and governing equations

/pdf/sound-generation-by-turbulence-and-surfaces-in-arbitrary-1fseb79yah.pdf

Sound Generation by Turbulence and Surfaces in Arbitrary Motion

Theory relating to the noise of rotating machinery

Small amplitude waves on a shallow layer of water are studied from the point of view used in aerodynamic sound theory. It is shown that many aspects of the generation and propagation of water waves are similar to those of sound waves in air. Certain differences are also discussed. It is concluded that shallow water simulation can be employed in the study of some aspects of aerodynamically generated sound.

D. L. Hawkings

Papers

Sound Generation by Turbulence and Surfaces in Arbitrary Motion

Theory relating to the noise of rotating machinery

Shallow water wave generation by unsteady flow