Manipulative strategies of social conduct (Machiavellianism) have been studied by both psychologists and evolutionary biologists. The authors use the psychological literature as a database to test evolutionary hypotheses about the adaptive advantages of manipulative social behavior. Machiavellianism does not correlate with general intelligence and does not consistently lead to real-world success. It is best regarded as 1 of several social strategies, broadly similar to the "defect" strategy of evolutionary game theory, which is successful in some situations but not others. In general, human evolutionary psychology and evolutionary game theory provide useful frameworks for thinking about behavioral strategies, such as Machiavellian ism, and identify a large number of specific hypotheses that have not yet been tested by personality and social psychologists. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a Florentine diplomat who visited the courts of Europe and observed firsthand the rise and fall of their leaders. His own fall came with the overthrow of the regime that he served. He wrote The Prince (Machiavelli, 1513 /1966) to ingratiate himself with the new ruler. The Prince is a book of advice on how to acquire and stay in power. It is based entirely on expediency and is devoid of the traditional virtues of trust, honor, and decency. A typical passage is, "Men are so simple and so much inclined to obey immediate needs that a deceiver will never lack victims for his deceptions" (p. 63). Machiavelli failed to gain favor with the new prince, but his name has come to represent a strategy of social conduct in which others are regarded entirely as means toward personal ends. As a historical aside, Machiavelli himself was not very Machiavellian, displaying an uncommon devotion to his city. Some of his other works, such as Discourses (Machiavelli, 1513/1950), also stress nonmanipulative themes. Christie and Geis (1968, 1970a, 1970b) were the first psychologists to study Machiavellianism as an important axis of human behavioral variation. They developed a series ofMach tests that measure a participant's agreement with statements such as "Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so." High and low scorers on the test, often referred to as high-Machs and low-Machs, respectively, differ in many other aspects of their behavior, from vocational choice to success at games that involve forming alliances. The

Machiavellianism : a synthesis of the evolutionary and psychological literatures

Software safety issues become important when computers are used to control real-time, safety-critical processes. This survey attempts to explain why there is a problem, what the problem is, and what is known about how to solve it. Since this is a relatively new software research area, emphasis is placed on delineating the outstanding issues and research topics.

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Software safety: why, what, and how

A narrative review of dexterity assessments.

Preface to the Third Edition. Preface to the Second Edition. Preface to the First Edition. Acknowledgments. Introduction. Superior Safety Performance: A Reflection of an Organization's Culture. Transitions Affecting the Practice of Safety. Defining the Practice of Safety. Principles for the Practice of Safety: A Basis for Discussion. Academic and Skill Requirements for the Practice of Safety. On Becoming a Profession. Heinrich Revisited: Truisms or Myths. Addressing Severe Injury Potential. Observations on Causation Models for Hazards-Related Incidents. A Systemic Causation Model for Hazards-Related Incidents. Incident Investigation: Studies of Quality. Designer Incident Investigation. Comments on Hazards and Risks. Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment. Acceptable Risk. Safety Professionals and the Design Process. Guidelines: Designing for Safety. System Safety: The Concept. Applied Ergonomics: Significance and Opportunity. On Quality Management and the Practice of Safety. A Safety Management Standard: A Futuristic View. On Safety, Health, and Environmental Audits. Behavior-Based Safety. Measurement of Safety Performance. Index.

On the Practice of Safety

Objective: To provide an overview of arm–hand function tests useful in tetraplegic subjects. Considerations for selection of an appropriate test are also provided. Data sources: A Medline literature search was conducted covering the period from 1967 to March 2001. Relevant references cited in the selected papers were also considered, regardless of the year of publication. Study selection: This review was restricted to strength tests, functional and ADL tests. Only general tests and tests designed specifically to test tetraplegic persons written in English, or in Dutch were included in the review. Results: Information is provided on four types of strength tests, 10 general and five specific functional tests and eight ADL tests. Conclusion: Many tests are available to measure upper extremity motor function in tetraplegics. Selection of a test is at first determined by the outcome value in which the investigator is interested. When the type of outcome value has been determined, the most suitable test has to be selected from the range of available tests. When two tests appear to be equally suitable, the availability of information on psychometric properties of the test when used in tetraplegic patients is a decisive factor. When information on the reliability, validity and sensitivity of a test is missing, it should be gathered before using the test. Sponsorship: The present study was written with financial assistance provided by the Health Research and Development Council of the Netherlands.

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Evaluation of upper extremity motor function tests in tetraplegics.

We examined the American Medical Association'sGuides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairmentrating schedule to determine whether this guide provided a reliable and valid assessment of hand impairment. A sample of 118 patients with permanent hand impairment was assessed using the guide. In addition, each patient underwent tests of finger dexterity, hand strength, hand-eye coordination, and the rate of manipulation. The reliability, based on the correlation between the two raters, was 0.75. For the injured hand, psychomotor test scores were highly correlated with the rating of permanent impairment in all cases. These differences were statistically significant for approximately two thirds of the cases. The guide's ratings showed both substantial reliability and accuracy with the various tests of hand function. (JAMA1982;248:2292-2296)

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/379578/jama_248_18_032.pdf

Reliability and validity of American Medical Association's guide to ratings of permanent impairment

This overview of the safety engineering field examines the areas and problems confronting engineers and other health and safety professionals. Discusses various accident conditions and the ways to control them. Covers loss control, human resource development management and training, design assurance, health care, and occupational design. Examines the disaster or imminent disaster situation and the appropriate action to take.

Introduction to safety engineering

This study involved the validation of the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test in assessing permanent disability of the hand. 118 persons with permanent impairments of the hand were given four subtests of the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test. The impaired hand was assessed with the traditional measure for permanent impairment and a rating obtained. Scores for the impaired hand on each of four subtests were strongly correlated with the rating of disability.

Use of the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test for Disability Evaluation.

To examine the use of a test of psychomotor ability of disabled persons, a group of 118 persons with permanent impairment of one hand were given the disability rating together with the O'Connor Finger Dexterity Test. Scores showed a substantial correlation of.69 between these two instruments. Scores on the Finger Dexterity Test were strongly correlated to the activities of daily living subscale of the Hand Disability Rating Scale (.88), while rating of disability was not. Age appeared unrelated to either test or disability scores. Language: en

Use of a text of psychomotor ability in an expanded role.

Research on the relationship between conformity and temptation to lie utilized a measure of temptation to lie from 40 subjects by administration of the Machiavellian Scale several weeks prior to th...

David S. Gloss

Papers

Reliability and validity of American Medical Association's guide to ratings of permanent impairment

Introduction to safety engineering

Use of the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test for Disability Evaluation.

Use of a text of psychomotor ability in an expanded role.

Effects of Lying and Conformity on Decision-Making Behavior: