Derek F. Harris

Bio: Derek F. Harris is an academic researcher from Utah State University. The author has contributed to research in topics: Nitrogenase & Medicine. The author has an hindex of 10, co-authored 13 publications receiving 867 citations. Previous affiliations of Derek F. Harris include The Hertz Corporation & Brandon University.

Light-driven dinitrogen reduction catalyzed by a CdS:nitrogenase MoFe protein biohybrid.

Abstract: The splitting of dinitrogen (N2) and reduction to ammonia (NH3) is a kinetically complex and energetically challenging multistep reaction. In the Haber-Bosch process, N2 reduction is accomplished at high temperature and pressure, whereas N2 fixation by the enzyme nitrogenase occurs under ambient conditions using chemical energy from adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis. We show that cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanocrystals can be used to photosensitize the nitrogenase molybdenum-iron (MoFe) protein, where light harvesting replaces ATP hydrolysis to drive the enzymatic reduction of N2 into NH3 The turnover rate was 75 per minute, 63% of the ATP-coupled reaction rate for the nitrogenase complex under optimal conditions. Inhibitors of nitrogenase (i.e., acetylene, carbon monoxide, and dihydrogen) suppressed N2 reduction. The CdS:MoFe protein biohybrids provide a photochemical model for achieving light-driven N2 reduction to NH3.

Reduction of Substrates by Nitrogenases

Abstract: Nitrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes biological N2 reduction to NH3. This enzyme achieves an impressive rate enhancement over the uncatalyzed reaction. Given the high demand for N2 fixation to support food and chemical production and the heavy reliance of the industrial Haber-Bosch nitrogen fixation reaction on fossil fuels, there is a strong need to elucidate how nitrogenase achieves this difficult reaction under benign conditions as a means of informing the design of next generation synthetic catalysts. This Review summarizes recent progress in addressing how nitrogenase catalyzes the reduction of an array of substrates. New insights into the mechanism of N2 and proton reduction are first considered. This is followed by a summary of recent gains in understanding the reduction of a number of other nitrogenous compounds not considered to be physiological substrates. Progress in understanding the reduction of a wide range of C-based substrates, including CO and CO2, is also discussed, and remaining challenges in understanding nitrogenase substrate reduction are considered.

A pathway for biological methane production using bacterial iron-only nitrogenase

Abstract: Methane (CH4) is a potent greenhouse gas that is released from fossil fuels and is also produced by microbial activity, with at least one billion tonnes of CH4 being formed and consumed by microorganisms in a single year 1 . Complex methanogenesis pathways used by archaea are the main route for bioconversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) to CH4 in nature2–4. Here, we report that wild-type iron-iron (Fe-only) nitrogenase from the bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris reduces CO2 simultaneously with nitrogen gas (N2) and protons to yield CH4, ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen gas (H2) in a single enzymatic step. The amount of CH4 produced by purified Fe-only nitrogenase was low compared to its other products, but CH4 production by this enzyme in R. palustris was sufficient to support the growth of an obligate CH4-utilizing Methylomonas strain when the two microorganisms were grown in co-culture, with oxygen (O2) added at intervals. Other nitrogen-fixing bacteria that we tested also formed CH4 when expressing Fe-only nitrogenase, suggesting that this is a general property of this enzyme. The genomes of 9% of diverse nitrogen-fixing microorganisms from a range of environments encode Fe-only nitrogenase. Our data suggest that active Fe-only nitrogenase, present in diverse microorganisms, contributes CH4 that could shape microbial community interactions.

Mo-, V-, and Fe-Nitrogenases Use a Universal Eight-Electron Reductive-Elimination Mechanism To Achieve N2 Reduction.

Abstract: Three genetically distinct, but structurally similar, isozymes of nitrogenase catalyze biological N2 reduction to 2NH3: Mo-, V-, and Fe-nitrogenase, named respectively for the metal (M) in their ac...

Mechanism of N2 Reduction Catalyzed by Fe-Nitrogenase Involves Reductive Elimination of H2.

Abstract: Of the three forms of nitrogenase (Mo-nitrogenase, V-nitrogenase, and Fe-nitrogenase), Fe-nitrogenase has the poorest ratio of N2 reduction relative to H2 evolution. Recent work on the Mo-nitrogenase has revealed that reductive elimination of two bridging Fe-H-Fe hydrides on the active site FeMo-cofactor to yield H2 is a key feature in the N2 reduction mechanism. The N2 reduction mechanism for the Fe-nitrogenase active site FeFe-cofactor was unknown. Here, we have purified both component proteins of the Fe-nitrogenase system, the electron-delivery Fe protein (AnfH) plus the catalytic FeFe protein (AnfDGK), and established its mechanism of N2 reduction. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy and mass spectrometry show that the FeFe protein component does not contain significant amounts of Mo or V, thus ruling out a requirement of these metals for N2 reduction. The fully functioning Fe-nitrogenase system was found to have specific activities for N2 reduction (1 atm) of 181 ± 5 nmol NH3 min-1 mg-1 FeFe protein, for proton reduction (in the absence of N2) of 1085 ± 41 nmol H2 min-1 mg-1 FeFe protein, and for acetylene reduction (0.3 atm) of 306 ± 3 nmol C2H4 min-1 mg-1 FeFe protein. Under turnover conditions, N2 reduction is inhibited by H2 and the enzyme catalyzes the formation of HD when presented with N2 and D2. These observations are explained by the accumulation of four reducing equivalents as two metal-bound hydrides and two protons at the FeFe-cofactor, with activation for N2 reduction occurring by reductive elimination of H2.

Ab initio calculation of vibrational absorption and circular dichroism spectra using density functional force fields

Abstract: : The unpolarized absorption and circular dichroism spectra of the fundamental vibrational transitions of the chiral molecule, 4-methyl-2-oxetanone, are calculated ab initio. Harmonic force fields are obtained using Density Functional Theory (DFT), MP2, and SCF methodologies and a 5S4P2D/3S2P (TZ2P) basis set. DFT calculations use the Local Spin Density Approximation (LSDA), BLYP, and Becke3LYP (B3LYP) density functionals. Mid-IR spectra predicted using LSDA, BLYP, and B3LYP force fields are of significantly different quality, the B3LYP force field yielding spectra in clearly superior, and overall excellent, agreement with experiment. The MP2 force field yields spectra in slightly worse agreement with experiment than the B3LYP force field. The SCF force field yields spectra in poor agreement with experiment.The basis set dependence of B3LYP force fields is also explored: the 6-31G* and TZ2P basis sets give very similar results while the 3-21G basis set yields spectra in substantially worse agreements with experiment. jg

Emerging Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Electrocatalysis

Abstract: Over the past few decades, the design and development of advanced electrocatalysts for efficient energy conversion technologies have been subjects of extensive study. With the discovery of graphene, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have emerged as some of the most promising candidates for heterogeneous electrocatalysts due to their unique physical, chemical, and electronic properties. Here, we review 2D-nanomaterial-based electrocatalysts for selected electrocatalytic processes. We first discuss the unique advances in 2D electrocatalysts based on different compositions and functions followed by specific design principles. Following this overview, we discuss various 2D electrocatalysts for electrocatalytic processes involved in the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle from their fundamental conception to their functional application. We place a significant emphasis on different engineering strategies for 2D nanomaterials and the influence these strategies have on intrinsic material performance, ...

Beyond fossil fuel-driven nitrogen transformations.

Abstract: BACKGROUND The invention of the Haber-Bosch (H-B) process in the early 1900s to produce ammonia industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen revolutionized the manufacture of fertilizer and led to fundamental changes in the way food is produced. Its impact is underscored by the fact that about 50% of the nitrogen atoms in humans today originate from this single industrial process. In the century after the H-B process was invented, the chemistry of carbon moved to center stage, resulting in remarkable discoveries and a vast array of products including plastics and pharmaceuticals. In contrast, little has changed in industrial nitrogen chemistry. This scenario reflects both the inherent efficiency of the H-B process and the particular challenge of breaking the strong dinitrogen bond. Nonetheless, the reliance of the H-B process on fossil fuels and its associated high CO 2 emissions have spurred recent interest in finding more sustainable and environmentally benign alternatives. Nitrogen in its more oxidized forms is also industrially, biologically, and environmentally important, and synergies in new combinations of oxidative and reductive transformations across the nitrogen cycle could lead to improved efficiencies. ADVANCES Major effort has been devoted to developing alternative and environmentally friendly processes that would allow NH 3 production at distributed sources under more benign conditions, rather than through the large-scale centralized H-B process. Hydrocarbons (particularly methane) and water are the only two sources of hydrogen atoms that can sustain long-term, large-scale NH 3 production. The use of water as the hydrogen source for NH 3 production requires substantially more energy than using methane, but it is also more environmentally benign, does not contribute to the accumulation of greenhouse gases, and does not compete for valuable and limited hydrocarbon resources. Microbes living in all major ecosystems are able to reduce N 2 to NH 3 by using the enzyme nitrogenase. A deeper understanding of this enzyme could lead to more efficient catalysts for nitrogen reduction under ambient conditions. Model molecular catalysts have been designed that mimic some of the functions of the active site of nitrogenase. Some modest success has also been achieved in designing electrocatalysts for dinitrogen reduction. Electrochemistry avoids the expense and environmental damage of steam reforming of methane (which accounts for most of the cost of the H-B process), and it may provide a means for distributed production of ammonia. On the oxidative side, nitric acid is the principal commodity chemical containing oxidized nitrogen. Nearly all nitric acid is manufactured by oxidation of NH 3 through the Ostwald process, but a more direct reaction of N 2 with O 2 might be practically feasible through further development of nonthermal plasma technology. Heterogeneous NH 3 oxidation with O 2 is at the heart of the Ostwald process and is practiced in a variety of environmental protection applications as well. Precious metals remain the workhorse catalysts, and opportunities therefore exist to develop lower-cost materials with equivalent or better activity and selectivity. Nitrogen oxides are also environmentally hazardous pollutants generated by industrial and transportation activities, and extensive research has gone into developing and applying reduction catalysts. Three-way catalytic converters are operating on hundreds of millions of vehicles worldwide. However, increasingly stringent emissions regulations, coupled with the low exhaust temperatures of high-efficiency engines, present challenges for future combustion emissions control. Bacterial denitrification is the natural analog of this chemistry and another source of study and inspiration for catalyst design. OUTLOOK Demands for greater energy efficiency, smaller-scale and more flexible processes, and environmental protection provide growing impetus for expanding the scope of nitrogen chemistry. Nitrogenase, as well as nitrifying and denitrifying enzymes, will eventually be understood in sufficient detail that robust molecular catalytic mimics will emerge. Electrochemical and photochemical methods also demand more study. Other intriguing areas of research that have provided tantalizing results include chemical looping and plasma-driven processes. The grand challenge in the field of nitrogen chemistry is the development of catalysts and processes that provide simple, low-energy routes to the manipulation of the redox states of nitrogen.

Rational design of electrocatalysts and photo(electro)catalysts for nitrogen reduction to ammonia (NH3) under ambient conditions

Abstract: As one of the most important chemicals and carbon-free energy carriers, ammonia (NH3) has a worldwide annual production of ∼150 million tons, and is mainly produced by the traditional high-temperature and high-pressure Haber–Bosch process which consumes massive amounts of energy. Very recently, electrocatalytic and photo(electro)catalytic reduction of N2 to NH3, which can be performed at ambient conditions using renewable energy, have received tremendous attention. The overall performance of these electrocatalytic and photo(electro)catalytic systems is largely dictated by their core components, catalysts. This perspective for the first time highlights the rational design of electrocatalysts and photo(electro)catalysts for N2 reduction to NH3 under ambient conditions. Fundamental theory of catalytic reaction pathways for the N2 reduction reaction and the corresponding material design principles are introduced first. Then, recently developed electrocatalysts and photo(electro)catalysts are summarized, with a special emphasis on the relationship between their physicochemical properties and NH3 production performance. Finally, the opportunities in this emerging research field, in particular, the strategy of combining experimental and theoretical techniques to design efficient and stable catalysts for NH3 production, are outlined.

A Review of Electrocatalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia under Ambient Conditions

Abstract: DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201800369 reactions involved.[1] In recent years, tremendous progress has been achieved in the field of heterogeneous electrocatalysis, with rapid development of multifarious electocatalysts toward oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR). However, electrocatalysts for the reduction of dinitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) at room temperature and atmospheric pressure remain largely underexplored, despite the fact that investigations on catalysts and reaction systems for artificial nitrogen fixation have been continued for more than 100 years.[2–4] Ammonia is primarily used for producing fertilizers to sustain the world’s population.[5] It also serves as a green energy carrier and a potential transportation fuel.[6] Currently, ammonia synthesis is dominated by the industrial Haber–Bosch process using heterogeneous iron-based catalysts at high temperature (300–500 °C) and high pressure (150–300 atm),[7] accounting for more than 1% of the world’s energy supply and generating more than 300 million metric tons of fossil fuel–derived CO2 annually.[8,9] Hence, it is desirable to develop alternative processes that have the potential to overcome the limitations of the Haber–Bosch process including harsh conditions, complex plant infrastructure, centralized distribution, high energy consumption, and negative environmental impacts. In nature, biological N2 fixation occurs under mild conditions via nitrogenase enzymes that contain FeMo, FeV, or FeFe cofactor as catalytic active sites.[10,11] Developed man-made catalysts are therefore stimulated to reduce N2 upon the addition of protons and electrons, which is similar to the nitrogenase catalytic process. Transition metal–dinitrogen complexes such as the molybdenum–, iron–, and cobalt–dinitrogen complexes have been proposed as homogeneous catalysts for the reduction of N2 into NH3 under ambient conditions;[12] however, the stability and recycling issues are challenging.[13] On the other hand, electrochemical and photochemical reduction processes using heterogeneous catalysts benefit from clean and renewable energy sources and are promising for achieving NH3 production directly from N2 and water.[14] The electrochemical reduction of N2 to NH3 can be more efficient than the photochemical counterpart. This is because not all of the photons in the photochemical reduction process can The production of ammonia (NH3) from molecular dinitrogen (N2) under mild conditions is one of the most attractive topics in the field of chemistry. Electrochemical reduction of N2 is promising for achieving clean and sustainable NH3 production with lower energy consumption using renewable energy sources. To date, emerging electrocatalysts for the electrochemical reduction of N2 to NH3 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure remain largely underexplored. The major challenge is to achieve both high catalytic activity and high selectivity. Here, the recent progress on the electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) at ambient temperature and pressure from both theoretical and experimental aspects is summarized, aiming at extracting instructive perceptions for future NRR research activities. The prevailing theories and mechanisms for NRR as well as computational screening of promising materials are presented. State-of-the-art heterogeneous electrocatalysts as well as rational design of the whole electrochemical systems for NRR are involved. Importantly, promising strategies to enhance the activity, selectivity, efficiency, and stability of electrocatalysts toward NRR are proposed. Moreover, ammonia determination methods are compared and problems relating to possible ammonia contamination of the system are mentioned so as to shed fresh light on possible standard protocols for NRR measurements.