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Don F. Stanford

Bio: Don F. Stanford is an academic researcher from University of Mississippi. The author has contributed to research in topics: Poppy & Thebaine. The author has an hindex of 1, co-authored 1 publications receiving 58 citations.
Topics: Poppy, Thebaine, Morphine, Codeine, Opiate

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results indicated that significant amounts of morphine and codeine are excreted in urine and that in all subjects, at least at one point in time, the apparent morphine concentration as determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA) analysis exceeded the cutoff value established for screening.
Abstract: In this study, poppy seeds were examined for a natural constituent that might serve as a maker for the seeds' ingestion as opposed to opiate abuse. Thebaine was selected as possible marker, since it was found to be a component of all poppy seeds examined and was not a natural component of different heroin samples. During the course of this investigation, a new extraction and cleanup procedure was developed for the gas chromatographic/nitrogen phosphorus detection (GC/NPD) and gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) analysis of morphine and codeine in urine. A linear response, over a concentration range of 25 to 600 ng/mL, was obtained for codeine and morphine (r = 0.9982 and 0.9947, respectively). The minimum detectable level (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) for morphine were 10 and 30 ng/mL, respectively; whereas LOD and LOQ for codeine were 2 and 8 ng/mL, respectively. The coefficients of variance (CV, n = 6) for morphine and codeine analyses at the 100-ng/mL level were 13.3 and 4.6%, respectively. This procedure was used for the analysis of urine samples from five poppy seed eaters who each ingested 200 g of poppy seed cake. Results indicated that significant amounts of morphine and codeine are excreted in urine and that in all subjects, at least at one point in time, the apparent morphine concentration as determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA) analysis exceeded the cutoff value (300 ng/mL) established for screening. Thebaine was not detected in urine specimens collected following poppy seeds ingestion and thus could not be used as a marker.

59 citations


Cited by
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Hair analysis for 6-acetylmorphine can be used to differentiate heroin users from other types of opiate exposure (e.g., poppy seed, licit morphine, and codeine); however, environmental contamination can potentially produce false positives during opiate testing.
Abstract: Hair samples from 20 documented heroin users contained 6-acetylmorphine, a unique metabolite of heroin, in all samples. Heroin was identified in smaller amounts in seven of these samples. The identity of 6-acetylmorphine and heroin was established by comparison of full scan spectra of extracts to standard reference materials. The presence of 6-acetylmorphine generally predominated over heroin, morphine, and codeine. The mean concentrations of analytes were as follows: 6-acetylmorphine, 0.90 ng/mg, N = 20; heroin, 0.17 ng/mg, N = 7; morphine, 0.26 ng/mg, N = 20; codeine, 0.18 ng/mg, N = 15. Analysis of hair samples obtained from 10 drug-free control subjects were negative for 6-acetylmorphine, morphine, and codeine. However, a small interfering peak was observed at the retention time for heroin. Control samples soaked in aqueous solutions of heroin and 6-acetylmorphine were found to be contaminated, even though an initial wash step was included in the analysis. These data suggest that hair analysis for 6-acetylmorphine can be used to differentiate heroin users from other types of opiate exposure (e.g., poppy seed, licit morphine, and codeine); however, environmental contamination can potentially produce false positives during opiate testing.

137 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The findings demonstrate that the poppy seed defence could be used as an argument in medico-legal and employment medical cases and great care should therefore be taken when interpreting the data produced when screening for opiates.

110 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present review attempts to address the issues concerning the use of nutritional supplements and the detection of doping agents as contaminants in dietary supplements.
Abstract: Based upon recent sales numbers, nutritional supplements play a key role in the lifestyle of a substantial proportion of the population. As well as products such as vitamins or minerals, several precursors of anabolic steroids are marketed as nutritional supplements. Another group of commercially available supplements are products for weight loss based upon herbal formulations originating from Ephedra species. Apart from supplements indicating the presence of these active compounds, numerous non-hormonal nutritional supplements were found that were contaminated with non-labelled anabolic steroids. Stimulating agents other than naturally occurring analogues of ephedrine were detected. A major group using dietary supplements are sportsmen, ranging from amateur level to elite athletes. Besides the possible health risks associated with the use of dietary supplements, athletes should take care not to violate the rules of the World Anti-Doping Agency because athletes remain responsible for substances detected in their biofluids, irrespective of their origin. Several analytical methods have been developed to determine the presence of doping agents as contaminants. The present review attempts to address the issues concerning the use of nutritional supplements and the detection of doping agents as contaminants in dietary supplements.

99 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Analysis of sweat patches provides an alternate method for objectively monitoring drug use and provides an advantage over urine drug testing by extending drug detection times to one week or longer and indicates that weekly sweat testing may be less sensitive than thrice weekly urine testing in detecting opiate use.
Abstract: Although urine testing remains the standard for drug use monitoring, sweat testing for drugs of abuse is increasing, especially in criminal justice programs. One reason for this increase is sweat testing may widen the detection window compared to urine testing. Drug metabolites are rapidly excreted in urine limiting the window of detection of a single use to a few days. In contrast, sweat collection devices can be worn for longer periods of time. This study was designed to compare the efficacy of sweat testing versus urine testing for detecting drug use. Paired sweat patches that were applied and removed weekly on Tuesdays were compared to 3-5 consecutive urine specimens collected Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays (355 matched sweat and urine specimen sets) from 44 patients in a methadone-maintenance outpatient treatment program. All patches (N = 925) were extracted in 2.5 mL of solvent and analyzed by ELISA immunoassay for opiates (cutoff concentration 10 ng/mL). A subset (N = 389) of patches was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Urine specimens (N = 1886) were subjected to qualitative analysis by EMIT (cutoff 300 ng/mL). Results were evaluated to (1) determine the identity and relative amounts of opiates in sweat; (2) assess replicability in duplicate patches; (3) compare ELISA and GC-MS results for opiates in sweat; and (4) compare the detection of opiate use by sweat and urine testing. Opiates were detected in 38.5% of the sweat patches with the ELISA screen. GC-MS analysis confirmed 83.4% of the screen-positive sweat patches for heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, morphine, and/or codeine (cutoff concentration 5 ng/mL) and 90.2% of the screen-negative patches. The sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of ELISA opiate results as compared to GC-MS results in sweat were 96.7%, 72.2%, and 89.5%, respectively. Heroin and/or 6-acetylmorphine were detected in 78.1% of the GC-MS-positive sweat patches. Median concentrations of heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, morphine, and codeine in the positive sweat samples were 10.5, 13.6, 15.9, and 13.0 ng/mL, respectively. Agreement in paired sweat patch test results was 90.6% by ELISA analysis. For the purposes of this comparison of ELISA sweat patch to EMIT urine screening for opiates, the more commonly used urine test was considered to be the reference method. The sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of sweat patch results to urine results for opiates were 68.6%, 86.1%, and 78.6%, respectively. There were 13.5% false-negative and 7.9% false-positive sweat results as compared to urine tests. Analysis of sweat patches provides an alternate method for objectively monitoring drug use and provides an advantage over urine drug testing by extending drug detection times to one week or longer. In addition, identification of heroin and/or 6-acetylmorphine in sweat patches confirmed the use of heroin in 78.1% of the positive cases and differentiated illicit heroin use from possible ingestion of codeine or opiate-containing foods. However, the percentage of false-negative results, at least in this treatment population, indicates that weekly sweat testing may be less sensitive than thrice weekly urine testing in detecting opiate use.

91 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
26 Dec 2001-JAMA
TL;DR: Greater attention to the cross-reactivity of quinolones with immunoassays for opiates is needed to minimize the potential for invalid test interpretation.
Abstract: ContextMillions of assays are performed each year to monitor for substance abuse in various settings. When common medications cross-react with frequently used testing assays, false-positive results can lead to invalid conclusions.ObjectiveTo evaluate cross-reactivity of quinolone antimicrobials in common opiate screening assays and to assess the in vivo implications of this phenomenon.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsThe reactivity of 13 quinolones (levofloxacin, ofloxacin, pefloxacin, enoxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxacin, trovafloxacin, sparfloxacin, lomefloxacin, ciprofloxacin, clinafloxacin, norfloxacin, and nalidixic acid) was tested in 5 commercial opiate screening assays from September 1998 to March 1999. In 6 healthy volunteers, we confirmed the cross-reactivity of levofloxacin or ofloxacin with these opiate screening assays.Main Outcome MeasureOpiate assay activity (threshold for positive result, 300 ng/mL of morphine).ResultsNine of the quinolones caused assay results above the threshold for a positive result in at least 1 of the assays. Four of the assay systems caused false-positive results for at least 1 quinolone. Eleven of the 13 compounds caused some opiate activity by at least 1 assay system. At least 1 compound caused opiate assay activity in all 5 assay systems. Levofloxacin, ofloxacin, and pefloxacin were most likely to lead to a false-positive opiate result. Positive results were obtained in urine from all 6 volunteers.ConclusionGreater attention to the cross-reactivity of quinolones with immunoassays for opiates is needed to minimize the potential for invalid test interpretation.

77 citations