Elaine Borghi

Bio: Elaine Borghi is an academic researcher from World Health Organization. The author has contributed to research in topics: Population & Malnutrition. The author has an hindex of 22, co-authored 30 publications receiving 15275 citations. Previous affiliations of Elaine Borghi include Whittington Hospital.

Development of a WHO growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents

Abstract: Objective To construct growth curves for school-aged children and adolescents that accord with the WHO Child Growth Standards for preschool children and the body mass index (BMI) cut-offs for adults. Methods Data from the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO growth reference (1–24 years) were merged with data from the under-fives growth standards’ cross-sectional sample (18–71 months) to smooth the transition between the two samples. State-of-the-art statistical methods used to construct the WHO Child Growth Standards (0–5 years), i.e. the Box-Cox power exponential (BCPE) method with appropriate diagnostic tools for the selection of best models, were applied to this combined sample. Findings The merged data sets resulted in a smooth transition at 5 years for height-for-age, weight-for-age and BMI-for-age. For BMI-for-age across all centiles the magnitude of the difference between the two curves at age 5 years is mostly 0.0 kg/m² to 0.1 kg/m². At 19 years, the new BMI values at +1 standard deviation (SD) are 25.4 kg/m² for boys and 25.0 kg/m² for girls. These values are equivalent to the overweight cut-off for adults (> 25.0 kg/m²). Similarly, the +2 SD value (29.7 kg/m² for both sexes) compares closely with the cut-off for obesity (> 30.0 kg/m²). Conclusion The new curves are closely aligned with the WHO Child Growth Standards at 5 years, and the recommended adult cut-offs for overweight and obesity at 19 years. They fill the gap in growth curves and provide an appropriate reference for the 5 to 19 years age group. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2007;85:660–667.

Global prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children

Abstract: Background: Childhood obesity is associated with serious health problems and the risk of premature illness and death later in life. Monitoring related trends is important. Objective: The objective was to quantify the worldwide prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children on the basis of the new World Health Organization standards. Design: A total of 450 nationally representative cross-sectional surveys from 144 countries were analyzed. Overweight and obesity were defined as the proportion of preschool children with values .2 SDs and .3 SDs, respectively, from the World Health Organization growth standard median. Being “at risk of overweight” was defined as the proportion with values .1 SD and 2 SDs, respectively. Linear mixed-effects modeling was used to estimate the rates and numbers of affected children. Results: In 2010, 43 million children (35 million in developing countries) were estimated to be overweight and obese; 92 million were at risk of overweight. The worldwide prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity increased from 4.2% (95% CI: 3.2%, 5.2%) in 1990 to 6.7% (95% CI: 5.6%, 7.7%) in 2010. This trend is expected to reach 9.1% (95% CI: 7.3%, 10.9%), or ’60 million, in 2020. The estimated prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity in Africa in 2010 was 8.5% (95% CI: 7.4%, 9.5%) and is expected to reach 12.7% (95% CI: 10.6%, 14.8%) in 2020. The prevalence is lower in Asia than in Africa (4.9% in 2010), but the number of affected children (18 million) is higher in Asia. Conclusions: Childhood overweight and obesity have increased dramatically since 1990. These findings confirm the need for effective interventions starting as early as infancy to reverse anticipated trends. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:1257‐64.

Elaboración de valores de referencia de la OMS para el crecimiento de escolares y adolescentes

Abstract: Introduction The need to develop an appropriate single growth reference for the screening, surveillance and monitoring of school-aged children and adolescents has been stirred by two contemporary events: the increasing public health concern over childhood obesity (1) and the April 2006 release of the WHO Child Growth Standards for preschool children based on a prescriptive approach. (2) As countries proceed with the implementation of growth standards for children under 5 years of age, the gap across all centiles between these standards and existing growth references for older children has become a matter of great concern. It is now widely accepted that using descriptive samples of populations that reflect a secular trend towards overweight and obesity to construct growth references results inadvertently in an undesirable upward skewness leading to an underestimation of overweight and obesity, and an overestimation of undernutrition. (3) The reference previously recommended by WHO for children above 5 years of age, i.e. the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO international growth reference, (4) has several drawbacks. (5) In particular, the body mass index-for-age reference, developed in 1991, (6) only starts at 9 years of age, groups data annually and covers a limited percentile range. Many countries pointed to the need to have body mass index (BMI) curves that start at 5 years and permit unrestricted calculation of percentile and z-score curves on a continuous age scale from 5 to 19 years. The need to harmonize growth assessment tools conceptually and pragmatically prompted an expert group meeting in January 2006 to evaluate the feasibility of developing a single international growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents. (7,8) The experts agreed that appropriate growth references for these age groups should be developed for clinical and public health applications. They also agreed that a multicentre study, similar to the one that led to the development of the WHO Child Growth Standards for 0 to 5 years, would not be feasible for older children, as it would not be possible to control the dynamics of their environment. Therefore, as an alternative, the experts suggested that a growth reference be constructed for this age group using existing historical data and discussed the criteria for selecting the data sets. WHO subsequently initiated a process to identify existing data sets from various countries. This process resulted in an initial identification of 115 candidate data sets from 45 countries, which were narrowed down to 34 data sets from 22 countries that met the inclusion criteria developed by the expert group. However, after further review, even these most promising studies showed great heterogeneity in methods and data quality, sample size, age categories, socioeconomic status of participating children and various other factors critical to growth curve construction. Therefore, it was unlikely that a growth reference constructed from these heterogeneous data sets would agree with the WHO Child Growth Standards at 5 years of age for the different anthropometric indicators needed (i.e. height-for-age, weight-for-age and BMI-for-age). In consequence, WHO proceeded to reconstruct the 1977 NCHS/WHO growth reference from 5 to 19 years, using the original sample (a non-obese sample with expected heights), supplemented with data from the WHO Child Growth Standards (to facilitate a smooth transition at 5 years), and applying the state-of-the-art statistical methods (9,10) used to develop standards for preschool children, that is, the Box-Cox power exponential (BCPE) method with appropriate diagnostic tools for the selection of best models. The purposes of this paper are to report the methods used to reconstruct the 1977 NCHS/WHO growth reference, to compare the resulting new curves (the 2007 WHO reference) with the 1977 NCHS/WHO charts, and to describe the transition at 5 years of age from the WHO standards for under-fives to these new curves for school-aged children and adolescents. …

Comparison of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards and the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference: implications for child health programmes.

Abstract: Objectives: To compare growth patterns and estimates of malnutrition based on the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards (‘the WHO standards’) and the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO international growth reference (‘the NCHS reference’), and discuss implications for child health programmes. Design: Secondary analysis of longitudinal data to compare growth patterns (birth to 12 months) and data from two cross-sectional surveys to compare estimates of malnutrition among under-fives. Settings: Bangladesh, Dominican Republic and a pooled sample of infants from North America and Northern Europe. Subjects: Respectively 4787, 10 381 and 226 infants and children. Results: Healthy breast-fed infants tracked along the WHO standard’s weight-for-age mean Z-score while appearing to falter on the NCHS reference from 2 months onwards. Underweight rates increased during the first six months and thereafter decreased when based on the WHO standards. For all age groups stunting rates were higher according to the WHO standards. Wasting and severe wasting were substantially higher during the first half of infancy. Thereafter, the prevalence of severe wasting continued to be 1.5 to 2.5 times that of the NCHS reference. The increase in overweight rates based on the WHO standards varied by age group, with an overall relative increase of 34%. Conclusions: The WHO standards provide a better tool to monitor the rapid and changing rate of growth in early infancy. Their adoption will have important implications for child health with respect to the assessment of lactation performance and the adequacy of infant feeding. Population estimates of malnutrition will vary by age, growth indicator and the nutritional status of index populations.

Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013

Abstract: Summary Background In 2010, overweight and obesity were estimated to cause 3·4 million deaths, 3·9% of years of life lost, and 3·8% of disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) worldwide. The rise in obesity has led to widespread calls for regular monitoring of changes in overweight and obesity prevalence in all populations. Comparable, up-to-date information about levels and trends is essential to quantify population health effects and to prompt decision makers to prioritise action. We estimate the global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013. Methods We systematically identified surveys, reports, and published studies (n=1769) that included data for height and weight, both through physical measurements and self-reports. We used mixed effects linear regression to correct for bias in self-reports. We obtained data for prevalence of obesity and overweight by age, sex, country, and year (n=19 244) with a spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression model to estimate prevalence with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs). Findings Worldwide, the proportion of adults with a body-mass index (BMI) of 25 kg/m 2 or greater increased between 1980 and 2013 from 28·8% (95% UI 28·4–29·3) to 36·9% (36·3–37·4) in men, and from 29·8% (29·3–30·2) to 38·0% (37·5–38·5) in women. Prevalence has increased substantially in children and adolescents in developed countries; 23·8% (22·9–24·7) of boys and 22·6% (21·7–23·6) of girls were overweight or obese in 2013. The prevalence of overweight and obesity has also increased in children and adolescents in developing countries, from 8·1% (7·7–8·6) to 12·9% (12·3–13·5) in 2013 for boys and from 8·4% (8·1–8·8) to 13·4% (13·0–13·9) in girls. In adults, estimated prevalence of obesity exceeded 50% in men in Tonga and in women in Kuwait, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Libya, Qatar, Tonga, and Samoa. Since 2006, the increase in adult obesity in developed countries has slowed down. Interpretation Because of the established health risks and substantial increases in prevalence, obesity has become a major global health challenge. Not only is obesity increasing, but no national success stories have been reported in the past 33 years. Urgent global action and leadership is needed to help countries to more effectively intervene. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012.

Abstract: Importance More than one-third of adults and 17% of youth in the United States are obese, although the prevalence remained stable between 2003-2004 and 2009-2010. Objective To provide the most recent national estimates of childhood obesity, analyze trends in childhood obesity between 2003 and 2012, and provide detailed obesity trend analyses among adults. Design, Setting, and Participants Weight and height or recumbent length were measured in 9120 participants in the 2011-2012 nationally representative National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Main Outcomes and Measures In infants and toddlers from birth to 2 years, high weight for recumbent length was defined as weight for length at or above the 95th percentile of the sex-specific Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts. In children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the 95th percentile of the sex-specific CDC BMI-for-age growth charts. In adults, obesity was defined as a BMI greater than or equal to 30. Analyses of trends in high weight for recumbent length or obesity prevalence were conducted overall and separately by age across 5 periods (2003-2004, 2005-2006, 2007-2008, 2009-2010, and 2011-2012). Results In 2011-2012, 8.1% (95% CI, 5.8%-11.1%) of infants and toddlers had high weight for recumbent length, and 16.9% (95% CI, 14.9%-19.2%) of 2- to 19-year-olds and 34.9% (95% CI, 32.0%-37.9%) of adults (age-adjusted) aged 20 years or older were obese. Overall, there was no significant change from 2003-2004 through 2011-2012 in high weight for recumbent length among infants and toddlers, obesity in 2- to 19-year-olds, or obesity in adults. Tests for an interaction between survey period and age found an interaction in children ( P = .03) and women ( P = .02). There was a significant decrease in obesity among 2- to 5-year-old children (from 13.9% to 8.4%; P = .03) and a significant increase in obesity among women aged 60 years and older (from 31.5% to 38.1%; P = .006). Conclusions and Relevance Overall, there have been no significant changes in obesity prevalence in youth or adults between 2003-2004 and 2011-2012. Obesity prevalence remains high and thus it is important to continue surveillance.

Development of a WHO growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents

Abstract: Objective To construct growth curves for school-aged children and adolescents that accord with the WHO Child Growth Standards for preschool children and the body mass index (BMI) cut-offs for adults. Methods Data from the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO growth reference (1–24 years) were merged with data from the under-fives growth standards’ cross-sectional sample (18–71 months) to smooth the transition between the two samples. State-of-the-art statistical methods used to construct the WHO Child Growth Standards (0–5 years), i.e. the Box-Cox power exponential (BCPE) method with appropriate diagnostic tools for the selection of best models, were applied to this combined sample. Findings The merged data sets resulted in a smooth transition at 5 years for height-for-age, weight-for-age and BMI-for-age. For BMI-for-age across all centiles the magnitude of the difference between the two curves at age 5 years is mostly 0.0 kg/m² to 0.1 kg/m². At 19 years, the new BMI values at +1 standard deviation (SD) are 25.4 kg/m² for boys and 25.0 kg/m² for girls. These values are equivalent to the overweight cut-off for adults (> 25.0 kg/m²). Similarly, the +2 SD value (29.7 kg/m² for both sexes) compares closely with the cut-off for obesity (> 30.0 kg/m²). Conclusion The new curves are closely aligned with the WHO Child Growth Standards at 5 years, and the recommended adult cut-offs for overweight and obesity at 19 years. They fill the gap in growth curves and provide an appropriate reference for the 5 to 19 years age group. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2007;85:660–667.

Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk

Abstract: Considerable advances have occurred in recent years in the scientific knowledge of the benefits of breastfeeding, the mechanisms underlying these benefits, and in the clinical management of breastfeeding. This policy statement on breastfeeding replaces the 1997 policy statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics and reflects this newer knowledge and the supporting publications. The benefits of breastfeeding for the infant, the mother, and the community are summarized, and recommendations to guide the pediatrician and other health care professionals in assisting mothers in the initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding for healthy term infants and high-risk infants are presented. The policy statement delineates various ways in which pediatricians can promote, protect, and support breastfeeding not only in their individual practices but also in the hospital, medical school, community, and nation.

Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences

Abstract: Maternal and child undernutrition is highly prevalent in low-income and middle-income countries, resulting in substantial increases in mortality and overall disease burden. In this paper, we present new analyses to estimate the effects of the risks related to measures of undernutrition, as well as to suboptimum breastfeeding practices on mortality and disease. We estimated that stunting, severe wasting, and intrauterine growth restriction together were responsible for 2·2 million deaths and 21% of disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for children younger than 5 years. Deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc were estimated to be responsible for 0·6 million and 0·4 million deaths, respectively, and a combined 9% of global childhood DALYs. Iron and iodine deficiencies resulted in few child deaths, and combined were responsible for about 0·2% of global childhood DALYs. Iron deficiency as a risk factor for maternal mortality added 115 000 deaths and 0·4% of global total DALYs. Suboptimum breastfeeding was estimated to be responsible for 1·4 million child deaths and 44 million DALYs (10% of DALYs in children younger than 5 years). In an analysis that accounted for co-exposure of these nutrition-related factors, they were together responsible for about 35% of child deaths and 11% of the total global disease burden. The high mortality and disease burden resulting from these nutrition-related factors make a compelling case for the urgent implementation of interventions to reduce their occurrence or ameliorate their consequences.