Eliot Epstein

Bio: Eliot Epstein is an academic researcher from Tetra Tech. The author has contributed to research in topics: Soil conditioner & Biosolids. The author has an hindex of 6, co-authored 14 publications receiving 1107 citations.

The science of composting

Abstract: Preface Composting: A Prospective Composting and Recycling History Philosophical Aspects and the Future of Composting in the United States Advantages and Disadvantages of Composting Conclusion References Basic Concepts Introduction Oxygen and Aeration Moisture Temperature Nutrients: Carbon, Nitrogen, pH Summary References Microbiology Introduction Microbial Populations Temperature Moisture Nutrients Inoculants Summary References Biochemistry Introduction Organic Matter Biochemical Manifestations Occurring during Composting Biochemical Manifestations Occurring When Compost Is Applied to Soil Humus Formation Summary References Stability, Maturity, and Phytotoxicity Introduction Stability and Maturity: Chemical Methods Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio (C/N) Nitrogen Species pH Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Organic Chemical Constituents Humification Parameters Humification Index Relative Concentrations of Humic Acid to Fulvic Acid Humic Substance Functional Groups Optical Density Physical Methods Temperature and Heat Output Color, Odor, Structure and Specific Gravity Plant Assays Microbiological Tests and Activities Respiration-Carbon Dioxide Evolution Respiration-Oxygen Uptake Microbial Changes Enzyme Activity Phytotoxicity Summary References Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients Introduction Essentiality and Toxicity Arsenic (As) Boron (B) Cadmium (Cd) Copper (Cu) Lead (Pb) Mercury (Hg) Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel (Ni) Selenium (Se) Zinc (Zn) Occurrence in the Environment Environmental Consequences Leachate Characteristics of Compost Soil-Plant Interactions Type of Trace Element and Chemical State Soil Acidity Organic Matter Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Reversion to Unavailable Forms Other Aspects Effect of Compost on Trace Element Uptake Summary References Organic Compounds Introduction Organic Compounds in Various Compost Materials and Feedstocks Fate of Organic Compounds during Composting Reactions and Movement of Toxic Organics in Soil Uptake by Plants and Potential Entry into the Food Chain Conclusion References Pathogens Introduction Primary Pathogens in Wastes and Compost Worker Health Risks of Solid Waste Composting The Effect of Composting on Pathogen Destruction Survival of Pathogens in Soils and on Plants Conclusions References Bioaerosols Introduction Aspergillus Fumigatus Morphology Pathogenicity Occurrence in the Environment Occurrence in and Around Composting Facilities Dickerson, Maryland Site II, Maryland Westbrook, Maine Windsor, Ontario Hampton Roads, Virginia Beltsville, Maryland Camden, New Jersey Yard Waste Composting Facilities MSW Composting Facility Other Studies Endotoxin and Organic Dusts Conclusions References Odors and Volatile Organic Compounds Introduction Odorous Compounds and Odors Emitted by Composting Facilities Volatile Organic Compounds Air Dispersion Modeling for Composting Facilities Regulatory Models Model Parameters Gassian Dispersion and Dispersion Parameters Treatment of Terrain Reliability of Model Results Peak-to-Mean Conversion for Assessing Odor Impacts Examples of Dispersion Modeling for Composting Facilities Conclusion References Soil Physical and Chemical Manifestations Introduction Effect of Compost Application on Soil Physical Properties Soil Structure Bulk Density Soil Strength Water Relations-Soil Water Retention and Available Water to Plants Runoff and Soil Erosion Soil Temperature Effect of Compost Application on Soil Chemical Properties Cation Exchange Capacity Soil pH Electrical Conductivity (EC) Nitrogen Availability in Soil Nitrogen Leaching Summary References Utilization of Compost Introduction Horticulture Ornamental Flowering and House Plants Sod Production and Turf Grass Establishment Agricultural Crops Field Crops Vegetable Crops Silviculture Conclusion References Compost Utilization II Introduction Plant Pathogen Destruction during Composting Plant Disease Suppression Biofiltration Basic Concepts Moisture Content pH Nutrients Temperature Microbiology Application Summary References Regulations Introduction Concepts and Approaches to Regulations United States Federal Regulations State Regulations in the United States New York Tennessee Composting Facility General Requirements Facility Design and Construction Compost Standards California Canada Europe Austria Denmark Germany Italy Netherlands Criteria for Compost Quality and Facility Design: Compost Quality Criteria Facility Design Criteria Conclusion References Index

Land Application of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids

Abstract: Land Application of Biosolids: A Prospective Introduction Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids Systems for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids History of Land Application of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Production Conclusion References Sewage Sludge and Biosolids' Characteristics Introduction Physical Properties Chemical Properties Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients Organic Compounds Acidity (pH) Plant Nutrients Biological Properties Microbiological Organic Matter Conclusion References Plant Nutrients Introduction Nitrogen Ammonification Nitrification Immobilization Denitrification Volatilization Mineralization Phosphorus Potassium Micronutrients Conclusion References Trace Elements: Heavy Metals and Micronutrients Introduction Sources of Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients in the Environment Trace Elements in Biosolids Trace Elements in Animals, Humans, Soils and Plants Arsenic (As) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Cadmium (Cd) Animals and Humans Soil Plants Chromium (Cr) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Copper (Cu) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Lead (Pb) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Mercury (Hg) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Molybdenum (Mo) Animals and Humans Soils Plants Nickel (Ni) Animals and Humans Soil Plants Selenium (Se) Soil Plants Zinc (Zn) Animals and Humans Soil Plants Conclusion References The Effect of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids on Uptake of Trace Elements and Reactions in Soil Introduction Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals Reactions and Movement in Soils Conclusion References Organic Chemicals Introduction Fate of Toxic Organic Compounds when Biosolids are Land Applied Photodecomposition Degradation Plant Uptake of Organic Compounds Conclusion References Pathogens in Wastewater and Biosolids Introduction Pathogens in Wastewater, Sludge and Biosolids Removal of Pathogens by Wastewater Treatment Processes Effect of Biosolids Treatment Aerobic Digestion Anaerobic digestion Composting Heat Drying Alkaline stabilization Conclusion References Pathogens in Soils and on Plants Introduction Pathogens in Soils Bacteria Viruses Parasites Pathogens on Plants Conclusion References Land Application: Agricultural Crop Responses Introduction Agronomic Crops Research Results Prior to 1970 Research Results 1970 to 2001 Forestry and Reclamation Forestry Reclamation Conclusion References Effect of Land Application of Biosolids on Animals and Other Organisms Introduction Animals Domestic Wildlife Microbial Earthworms Conclusion References Regulations Introduction Concepts and Approaches to Regulations United States Method I. 185 Method II. Class A Requirements Process Requirements Alternative 1. Thermally Treated Sewage Sludge [(503.32(a)(3)] 1 Alternative 2. Sewage Sludge Treated in a High pH-temperature Process (Alkaline Treatment) [503.329(a) (94)] Alternative 3. Sewage Sludge Treated in Other Processes [503.32(a)(5)] Alternative 4. Sewage Sludge Treated in Unknown Processes [503.31(a)(6)]. Alternative 5. Use of Process to Further Reduce Pathogens (PFRP) [503.32(a)(7)] Alternative 6. Use of a Process Equivalent to PFRP [503.32(a)(8)] Class B Requirements Canada Europe Conclusion References

Defining Biosolids Stability

Abstract: The test methods, criteria, and approaches used for stability assessment of biosolids produced by composting, alkaline stabilization, heat drying, and digestion technologies have been reviewed in a recently completed study sponsored by the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) and are summarized in this paper. It was concluded that no one method is suitable for assessing stability for all types of biosolids. Stability assessment depends on the process used to manufacture the product, and intended use of the biosolids. A matrix based on use and technology was developed as an approach for biosolids stability assessment. A table was presented that summarizes the current state of practice. Tests were recommended as the most useful methods of stability assessment, at the present time, for each of the stabilization technologies examined. While there is an increasing recognition of the importance of stability assessment for beneficial use of biosolids, there is a lag in the practical use of stability assessment. Research needs were presented for further implementation of biosolids stability assessment.

Evaluating Risks and Benefits of Soil Amendments Used in Agriculture

Abstract: Farmers today are faced with an array of products that they can use to improve the fertility of their lands. Organic soil amendments such as biosolids, manures and, to a lesser extent, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) composts are products that can be used to supplement or replace mineral fertilizers. Many farmers are aware of the benefits that organic products offer, especially in terms of improved crop yields, increased soil fertility, reduced fertilizer costs, and their overall contribution to sustainable agriculture. Concerns have been raised, however, regarding the safety of organic soil amendments. Depending on the type of product, these can include (but are not limited to) the accumulation of phosphorus and metals in soils, plant uptake of land-applied metals, the contamination of groundwater and soil with organic compounds, and potential health impacts from pathogens and viruses. Although many of these issues have been rigorously researched, data is often published in academic journals and textbooks, and is not necessarily accessible to the public. For all soil amendments, comparative information regarding risks, benefits, advantages, and disadvantages is not always readily available. Equally critical is the lack of accessible comparative data on soil amendment and mineral fertilizer characteristics and use.Recognizing the need to provide a comparison of these products, the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) commissioned this multi-year study of soil amendments, fertilizers and their uses. For the study, the project team performed a comprehensive literature survey, reviewing and compiling the results from nearly 500 documents (primarily from academic journals and texts). The study generally found that the relative risk to the environment from amendments and fertilizers varies by parameter and shows that known risks from each of the materials studied can be managed. Moreover, these manageable risks must be carefully weighed against the considerable benefits provided by the land application of amendments and fertilizers. This title belongs to WERF Research Report Series ISBN: 9781843396512 (Print) ISBN: 9781780403168 (eBook)

Long-term effects of organic amendments on soil fertility. A review

Abstract: Common agricultural practices such as excessive use of agro-chemicals, deep tillage and luxury irrigation have degraded soils, polluted water resources and contaminated the atmosphere. There is increasing concern about interrelated environmental problems such as soil degradation, desertification, erosion, and accelerated greenhouse effects and climate change. The decline in organic matter content of many soils is becoming a major process of soil degradation, particularly in European semi-arid Mediterranean regions. Degraded soils are not fertile and thus cannot maintain sustainable production. At the same time, the production of urban and industrial organic waste materials is widespread. Therefore, strategies for recycling such organic waste in agriculture must be developed. Here, we review long-term experiments (3-60 years) on the effects of organic amendments used both for organic matter replenishment and to avoid the application of high levels of chemical fertilizers. The major points of our analysis are: (1) many effects, e.g. carbon sequestration in the soil and possible build-up of toxic elements, evolve slowly, so it is necessary to refer to long-term trials. (2) Repeated application of exogenous organic matter to cropland led to an improvement in soil biological functions. For instance, microbial biomass carbon increased by up to 100% using high-rate compost treatments, and enzymatic activity increased by 30% with sludge addition. (3) Long-lasting application of organic amendments increased organic carbon by up to 90% versus unfertilized soil, and up to 100% versus chemical fertilizer treatments. (4) Regular addition of organic residues, particularly the composted ones, increased soil physical fertility, mainly by improving aggregate stability and decreasing soil bulk density. (5) The best agronomic performance of compost is often obtained with the highest rates and frequency of applications. Furthermore, applying these strategies, there were additional beneficial effects such as the slow release of nitrogen fertilizer. (6) Crop yield increased by up to 250% by long-term applications of high rates of municipal solid waste compost. Stabilized organic amendments do not reduce the crop yield quality, but improve it. (7) Organic amendments play a positive role in climate change mitigation by soil carbon sequestration, the size of which is dependent on their type, the rates and the frequency of application. (8) There is no tangible evidence demonstrating negative impacts of heavy metals applied to soil, particularly when high-quality compost was used for long periods. (9) Repeated application of composted materials enhances soil organic nitrogen content by up to 90%, storing it for mineralization in future cropping seasons, often without inducing nitrate leaching to groundwater.

Long-Term Effects of Organic Amendments on Soil Fertility

Abstract: Common agricultural practices such as excessive use of agro-chemicals, deep tillage and luxury irrigation have degraded soils, polluted water resources and contaminated the atmosphere. There is increasing concern about interrelated environmental problems such as soil degradation, desertification, erosion, and accelerated greenhouse effects and climate change. The decline in organic matter content of many soils is becoming a major process of soil degradation, particularly in European semi-arid Mediterranean regions. Degraded soils are not fertile and thus cannot maintain sustainable production. At the same time, the production of urban and industrial organic waste materials is widespread. Therefore, strategies for recycling such organic waste in agriculture must be developed. Here, we review long-term experiments (3–60 years) on the effects of organic amendments used both for organic matter replenishment and to avoid the application of high levels of chemical fertilizers. The major points of our analysis are: (1) many effects, e.g. carbon sequestration in the soil and possible build-up of toxic elements, evolve slowly, so it is necessary to refer to long-term trials. (2) Repeated application of exogenous organic matter to cropland led to an improvement in soil biological functions. For instance, microbial biomass carbon increased by up to 100% using high-rate compost treatments, and enzymatic activity increased by 30% with sludge addition. (3) Long-lasting application of organic amendments increased organic carbon by up to 90% versus unfertilized soil, and up to 100% versus chemical fertilizer treatments. (4) Regular addition of organic residues, particularly the composted ones, increased soil physical fertility, mainly by improving aggregate stability and decreasing soil bulk density. (5) The best agronomic performance of compost is often obtained with the highest rates and frequency of applications. Furthermore, applying these strategies, there were additional beneficial effects such as the slow release of nitrogen fertilizer. (6) Crop yield increased by up to 250% by long-term applications of high rates of municipal solid waste compost. Stabilized organic amendments do not reduce the crop yield quality, but improve it. (7) Organic amendments play a positive role in climate change mitigation by soil carbon sequestration, the size of which is dependent on their type, the rates and the frequency of application. (8) There is no tangible evidence demonstrating negative impacts of heavy metals applied to soil, particularly when high-quality compost was used for long periods. (9) Repeated application of composted materials enhances soil organic nitrogen content by up to 90%, storing it for mineralization in future cropping seasons, often without inducing nitrate leaching to groundwater.