Wind energy, together with other renewable energy sources, are expected to grow substantially in the coming decades and play a key role in mitigating climate change and achieving energy sustainability. One of the main challenges in optimizing the design, operation, control, and grid integration of wind farms is the prediction of their performance, owing to the complex multiscale two-way interactions between wind farms and the turbulent atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). From a fluid mechanical perspective, these interactions are complicated by the high Reynolds number of the ABL flow, its inherent unsteadiness due to the diurnal cycle and synoptic-forcing variability, the ubiquitous nature of thermal effects, and the heterogeneity of the terrain. Particularly important is the effect of ABL turbulence on wind-turbine wake flows and their superposition, as they are responsible for considerable turbine power losses and fatigue loads in wind farms. These flow interactions affect, in turn, the structure of the ABL and the turbulent fluxes of momentum and scalars. This review summarizes recent experimental, computational, and theoretical research efforts that have contributed to improving our understanding and ability to predict the interactions of ABL flow with wind turbines and wind farms.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10546-019-00473-0.pdf

Wind-Turbine and Wind-Farm Flows: A Review

Recent developments in DBD plasma flow control

Towards In-Flight Applications? A Review on Dielectric Barrier Discharge-Based Boundary-Layer Control

Particle image velocimetry measurements in close proximity to dielectric-barrier discharge plasma actuators are conducted to quantify the momentum transfer of the plasma to the surrounding air flow. Based on these data a comparative analysis of six existing approaches to estimate the induced body force is presented. Integral methods calculate an integral value for the actuator force based on the momentum-balance equation. Insight into the spatial distribution of the body force is provided by differential methods, which are based either on the Navier–Stokes equations or on the vorticity equation. It is demonstrated that the intensity as well as the domain of the force increase with increasing operating power levels. Emphasis is also placed on the issue of self-induced drag. It is shown that 30% of the induced momentum is consumed by wall friction. All results are validated with previously obtained balance force data and luminosity analysis of identical actuators.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/46/5/055202/pdf

Velocity-information-based force-term estimation of dielectric-barrier discharge plasma actuators

The streamwise vortices generated by dielectric-barrier-discharge plasma actuators in the laminar boundary layer were investigated using particle image velocimetry to understand the vortex-formation mechanisms. The plasma vortex generator was oriented along the primary flow direction to produce a body force in the spanwise direction. This created a spanwise-directed wall jet which interacted with the oncoming boundary layer to form a coherent streamwise vortex. It was found that the streamwise vortices were formed by the twisting and folding of the spanwise vorticity in the oncoming boundary layer into the outer shear layer of the spanwise wall jet, which added its own vorticity to increase the circulation along the actuator length. This is similar to the delta-shaped, vane-type vortex generator, except that the circulation was enhanced by the addition of the vorticity in the plasma jet. It was also observed that the plasma vortex was formed close to the wall with an enhanced wall-ward entrainment, which created strong downwash above the actuator.

/pdf/on-the-formation-of-streamwise-vortices-by-plasma-vortex-13404qr9u4.pdf

On the formation of streamwise vortices by plasma vortex generators

Experiments were conducted for the flow in a straight-walled 3D diffuser fed by a fully developed turbulent duct flow. Previous work found that this diffuser has a stable 3D separation bubble whose configuration is affected by the secondary flows in the upstream duct. Dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators were used to produce low-momentum wall jets to determine if the separation behavior could be modified by weak forcing. Actuators producing a streamwise force along the wall where separation occurred in the baseline flow had a relatively small effect. However, spanwise acting plasma actuators that produced a pair of streamwise vortices in the inlet section of the diffuser had a strong effect on the diffuser pressure recovery. The diffuser performance could be either improved or degraded depending on the actuation parameters, including the actuator modulation frequency, duty cycle, and drive voltage. Velocity profile measurements in the diffuser inlet showed that the streamwise vortices affect the uniformity of the streamwise mean velocity accounting for some of the performance changes. However, phase-locked hotwire measurements at the diffuser exit indicate that the periodic nature of the forcing also plays an important role for cases with enhanced pressure recovery.

Sensitivity of an Asymmetric 3D Diffuser to Plasma-Actuator Induced Inlet Condition Perturbations

Modifications of the turbulent separated flow in an asymmetric three-dimensional diffuser due to inlet condition perturbations were investigated using conventional static pressure measurements and velocity data acquired using magnetic resonance velocimetry (MRV). Previous experiments and simulations revealed a strong sensitivity of the diffuser performance to weak secondary flows in the inlet. The present, more detailed experiments were conducted to obtain a better understanding of this sensitivity. Pressure data were acquired in an airflow apparatus at an inlet Reynolds number of 10,000. The diffuser pressure recovery was strongly affected by a pair of longitudinal vortices injected along one wall of the inlet channel using either dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators or conventional half-delta wing vortex generators. MRV measurements were obtained in a water flow apparatus at matched Reynolds number for two different cases with passive vortex generators. The first case had a pair of counter-rotating longitudinal vortices embedded in the boundary layer near the center of the expanding wall of the diffuser such that the flow on the outsides of the vortices was directed toward the wall. The MRV data showed that the three-dimensional separation bubble initially grew much slower causing a rapid early reduction in the core flow velocity and a consequent reduction of total pressure losses due to turbulent mixing. This produced a 13% increase in the overall pressure recovery. For the second case, the vortices rotated in the opposite sense, and the image vortices pushed them into the corners. This led to a very rapid initial growth of the separation bubble and formation of strong swirl at the diffuser exit. These changes resulted in a 17% reduction in the overall pressure recovery for this case. The results emphasize the extreme sensitivity of 3D separated flows to weak perturbations.

Sensitivity of an asymmetric 3D diffuser to vortex-generator induced inlet condition perturbations

Adiabatic wall temperature measurements were obtained in a high subsonic Mach number airflow experiment and compared with concentration measurements near the surface from a low-speed liquid flow experiment.
 Excellent agreement between the temperature and concentration measurements validates the investigation of turbulent mixing phenomena in compressible gas flows through the study of incompressible liquid flows with magnetic resonance techniques.

Validation of magnetic resonance concentration measurements with adiabatic wall temperature measurements

/pdf/sensitivity-of-an-asymmetric-3d-diffuser-to-vortex-generator-19yh989xl0.pdf

Sensitivity of an Asymmetric 3D Diffuser to Vortex Generator Induced Inlet Condition Perturbations

/pdf/sensitivity-of-an-asymmetric-three-dimensional-diffuser-to-28whmqcweh.pdf

Emily L. Sayles

Papers

Sensitivity of an Asymmetric 3D Diffuser to Plasma-Actuator Induced Inlet Condition Perturbations

Sensitivity of an asymmetric 3D diffuser to vortex-generator induced inlet condition perturbations

Validation of magnetic resonance concentration measurements with adiabatic wall temperature measurements

Sensitivity of an Asymmetric 3D Diffuser to Vortex Generator Induced Inlet Condition Perturbations

Sensitivity of an asymmetric three-dimensional diffuser to inlet condition perturbations