The issue of resistance in malarial infection makes development of novel drugs a necessity. An alternative source for discovering such drugs is natural products. Croton macrostachyus H. (Euphorbiaceae) is used in Ethiopian folklore medicine for the treatment of malaria and found to possess antimalarial activity in vitro. However, no further scientific investigations have been carried out to substantiate the claim. This study therefore aimed at investigating the in vivo antiplasmodial activity of 80% methanol extract and solvent fractions of the leaves of Croton macrostachyus H. in rodent model of malaria. A rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei, was used to inoculate healthy male Swiss Albino mice of age 6–8 weeks and weight 23–27 g. A hydro-alcoholic crude extract and the solvent fractions (chloroform, methanol and aqueous) were administered at different doses 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg. Parameters, including parasitemia, survival time, body weight, temperature, and packed cell volume were then determined using standard tests such as Peter’s and Rane’s test. Chemoprotective effect exerted by the crude extract and fractions ranged between 44-91% and 12-76%, respectvely. The chemotherapeutic effect of the crude extract and chloroform fraction was in the range of 39-83% and 66-82%, respectively. Maximum effect in both tests was observed with the larger dose of the crude extract and chloroform fraction. The crude extract prevented loss of weight and reduction in temperature but did not affect packed cell volume. However, the chloroform fraction did also reverse reduction in packed cell volume due to the absence of saponins in the fraction. The results collectively indicate that the plant has a promising antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium berghei, which upholds the earlier in vitro findings as well as its folkloric use. Thus, it could be considred as a potential source to develop new antimalarial agents.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186%2F1472-6882-14-79.pdf

In vivo antimalarial activity of the crude leaf extract and solvent fractions of Croton macrostachyus Hocsht. (Euphorbiaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice

The use of herbal medicine is increasingly finding more relevance today, especially with the recognition that we are facing more challenges in the treatment of some medical conditions such as diabetes and cancer. To date, there are not many publications or records on the traditional herbal medicine use among the various Kenyan communities despite the widespread use. There is therefore an urgent need to document traditional medicines in Kenya for future reference and research. The main objective of this review is to examine the current state of traditional herbal medicine practise in Kenya, the challenges facing the sector and the possible solutions to streamline the practice and maximize on the benefits. The method adopted in this research involved the analysis of the available records on herbal medicine in Kenya from various sources including internet and the available books. This information was then compared with those in other countries with established systems in order to establish the existing inadequacies. The various efforts to document herbal medicine incorporate into mainstream healthcare and the legal framework was also reviewed. Key words: Herbal medicine, documentation, research

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Current trends of Traditional Herbal Medicine Practice in Kenya: A review

In vivo antimalarial activity of the crude root and fruit extracts of Croton macrostachyus (Euphorbiaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance. Malaria is one of the lethal diseases of man, contributing to about 17 million deaths annually, leading to sociocultural, economic, and health influences. Aim of the Study. The study explores the ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological appraisal of antimalarial plants used by people of Omu Aran, Ogbomoso, Ado Ekiti, and Sagamu communities in Nigeria. Materials and Methods. For this study, relevant information was procured from the inhabitants via a structured questionnaire to procure the general knowledge of antimalarial medicinal plants. Results and Discussion. A total of 90 interviewees (44 men and 46 women) were involved in this survey. A total of 59 medicinal species were identified, which were dispersed in 33 families (Asteraceae (6), Apocynaceae (5), Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Poaceae, and Rubiaceae (3 each), Phyllanthaceae (2)) totaling 49% of the cited species. The most cited plants are Azadirachta indica (42), Mangifera indica (38), Carica papaya (28), Cymbopogon citratus (27), Cassia fistula (15), Morinda lucida (14), Anacardium occidentale and Vernonia amygdalina (13 each), Helianthus annuus (11), Enantia chlorantha (10), and Moringa oleifera (9) A total of 105 citations were recorded for the plant parts used (leaf (46), bark (17), fruits (9), root (9), latex (11), stem (11), and inflorescence (2)) while decoction (59%), maceration (25%), infusion (9%), and exudation (7%) were the methods of preparation. Use Values (UVs) of 0.47 to 0.11 were recorded for the frequently used antimalarial plants. The Efficiency Levels (ELs) of 11 different medicinal plants stated by the respondents were Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula and Morinda lucida (12), Chromolaena odorata (10), Mangifera indica, Enantia chlorantha and Helianthus annuus (8), Cymbopogon citratus (7), Gossypium arboretum (4), Landolphia dulcis (3), and Aloe vera (2) Cocos nucifera, Curcuma longa, Forkia biglobosa, and Musa acuminate are mentioned for the first time in the study area with little or no reported antiplasmodial activities. Conclusion. The study appraised the commonly used antimalarial plants in the study areas. Therefore, commitment to scientifically explore the bioactive compounds, antimalarial potential and toxicological profile of these plants is inevitable as they could lead to novel natural products for effective malaria therapy.

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Natural Products as Sources of Antimalarial Drugs: Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Studies.

Antimalarial potentials of Stemonocoleus micranthus Harms (leguminoseae) stem bark in Plasmodium berghei infected mice.

Malaria is a disease caused by Plasmodium  parasites and, though preventable and curable, is still one of the greatest global public health problems especially in sub- Saharan Africa. This can be partly attributed to the malaria in endemic areas. Unfortunately, recent reports indicate a decline in efficacy of artemisinin derivatives along Thai-Cambodia border, a site historically known for the recurrent emergence of drug resistant malaria parasites (Dondorp et al, 2009; Noedl et al, 2008). New classes of antimalarial agents are therefore urgently needed given that drug resistance is likely to eventually compromise the efficacy of currently available antimalarial drugs; identification of lead antimalarial agents from medicinal plants could boost the search. Clausena anisata in vivo  antimalarial activity and acute toxicity of C. anisata  extracts were investigated. The plant was selected as it has been traditionally used to treat malaria (Kokwaro, 2009; Beentje, 1994). (Willd.) Benth is a deciduous shrub/tree whose leaves are aromatic. In Kenya, it is known locally as Mjarikali (Swahili) and Mutathi (Kikuyu). Traditionally, soup boiled with the roots of the plant was given to women after birth to cleanse the uterus. This soup is also highly recommended for headache, malaria, influenza and indigestion. Twigs are used as toothbrushes and are believed to cure toothache. Decoctions of the root are also drunk to treat syphilis (Kokwaro, 2009; Beentje, 1994; Gachathi, 1989). Pharmacological activities associated with extracts from this plant include antifungal and antibacterial activity (Senthilkumar and Venkatesalu, 2009; Hamza et al, 2006; Gundidza et al, 1994), antidiabetic activity (Ojewole, 2002), anticonvulsant activity (Makanju, 1983) angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity (Duncan et al, 1999) and antiviral activity (Ayisi and Nyadedzor, 2003). Phytochemical investigations indicate carbazole alkaloids as the major component of this plant (Ito et al, 2000; Ito et al, 2009). Coumarins and limonoids have also been isolated (Ngadjui et al, 1991; Ngadjui et al, 1989; Lakshmia et al, 1984). Pharmacological activities associated with carbazole alkaloids include antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral activities (Ito et al, 2009; Ito et al, 2000; Chakraborty et al, 1995). Coumarins are reported to have anticoagulant properties (Emerole et al, 1981). Steam distillation of fresh leaves yielded sweet smelling, brownish-yellow oil whose major component is the acute toxin estragole (Okunade, 1987). As part of our continuing efforts to identify antimalarial agents from medicinal plants, in vivo  antimalarial activity and acute toxicity of C. anisata  extracts were investigated. The plant was selected as it has been traditionally used to treat malaria (Kokwaro, 2009; Beentje, 1994).

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Enock M. Moindi

Papers

In vivo antimalarial and acute toxicity properties of hexane and chloroform extracts from Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth.