Franz X. Schmid

Bio: Franz X. Schmid is an academic researcher from University of Bayreuth. The author has contributed to research in topics: Protein folding & Folding (chemistry). The author has an hindex of 66, co-authored 235 publications receiving 14623 citations. Previous affiliations of Franz X. Schmid include University of Münster & Stanford University.

Cyclophilin and peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase are probably identical proteins.

Abstract: The enzyme peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) was recently discovered in mammalian tissues and purified from porcine kidney. It catalyses the slow cis-trans isomerization of proline peptide (Xaa-Pro) bonds in oligopeptides and accelerates slow, rate-limiting steps in the folding of several proteins. Here, we report the N-terminal sequence of PPIase together with further chemical and enzymatic properties. The results indicate that this enzyme is probably identical to cyclophilin, a recently discovered mammalian protein which binds tightly to cyclosporin A (CsA). Cyclophilin is thought to be linked to the immunosuppressive action of CsA. The first 38 amino-acid residues of porcine PPIase and of bovine cyclophilin are identical and the two proteins both have a relative molecular mass of about 17,000 (ref. 7). The catalysis of prolyl isomerization in oligopeptides and of protein folding by PPIase are strongly inhibited in the presence of low levels of CsA. The activities of both PPIase and cyclophilin depend on a single sulphydryl group. At present it is unknown whether the inhibition of prolyl isomerase activity is related with the immunosuppressive action of CsA.

GroE facilitates refolding of citrate synthase by suppressing aggregation.

Abstract: The molecular chaperone GroE facilitates correct protein folding in vivo and in vitro. The mode of action of GroE was investigated by using refolding of citrate synthase as a model system. In vitro denaturation of this dimeric protein is almost irreversible, since the refolding polypeptide chains aggregate rapidly, as shown directly by a strong, concentration-dependent increase in light scattering. The yields of reactivated citrate synthase were strongly increased upon addition of GroE and MgATP. GroE inhibits aggregation reactions that compete with correct protein folding, as indicated by specific suppression of light scattering. GroEL rapidly forms a complex with unfolded or partially folded citrate synthase molecules. In this complex the refolding protein is protected from aggregation. Addition of GroES and ATP hydrolysis is required to release the polypeptide chain bound to GroEL and to allow further folding to its final, active state.

Catalysis of protein folding by prolyl isomerase.

Abstract: Rates of protein folding reactions vary considerably. Some denatured proteins regain the native conformation within milliseconds or seconds, whereas others refold very slowly in the time range of minutes or hours. Varying folding rates are observed not only for different proteins, but can also be detected for single polypeptide species. This originates from the co-existence of fast- and slow-folding forms of the unfolded protein, which regain the native state with different rates. The proline hypothesis provides a plausible explanation for this heterogeneity. It assumes that the slow-folding molecules possess non-native isomers of peptide bonds between proline and another residue, and that crucial steps in the refolding of the slow-folding molecules are limited in rate by the slow reisomerization of such incorrect proline peptide bonds. Recently the enzyme peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) was discovered and purified from pig kidney. It catalyses efficiently the cis in equilibrium trans isomerization of proline imidic peptide bonds in oligopeptides. Here we show that it also catalyses slow steps in the refolding of a number of proteins of which fast- and slow-folding species have been observed and where it was suggested that proline isomerization was involved in slow refolding. The efficiency of catalysis depends on the accessibility for the isomerase of the particular proline peptide bonds in the refolding protein chain.

Two exposed amino acid residues confer thermostability on a cold shock protein.

Abstract: Thermophilic organisms produce proteins of exceptional stability. To understand protein thermostability at the molecular level we studied a pair of cold shock proteins, one of mesophilic and one of thermophilic origin, by systematic mutagenesis. Although the two proteins differ in sequence at 12 positions, two surface-exposed residues are responsible for the increase in stability of the thermophilic protein (by 15.8 kJ mol−1 at 70 °C). 11.5 kJ mol−1 originate from a predominantly electrostatic contribution of Arg 3 and 5.2 kJ mol−1 from hydrophobic interactions of Leu 66 at the carboxy terminus. The mesophilic protein could be converted to a highly thermostable form by changing the Glu residues at positions 3 and 66 to Arg and Leu, respectively. The variation of surface residues may thus provide a simple and powerful approach for increasing the thermostability of a protein.

Thermodynamics of protein association reactions: forces contributing to stability

Abstract: Reviewing the thermodynamic parameters characterizing self-association and ligand binding of proteins at 25 OC, we find AGO, AHo, AS\", and ACpo are often all of negative sign. It is thus not possible to account for the stability of association complexes of proteins on the basis of hydrophobic interactions alone. We present a conceptual model of protein association consisting of two steps: the mutual penetration of hydration layers causing disordering of the solvent followed by further short-range interactions. The net AGO for the complete association process is primarily determined by the positive entropy change accompanying the first step and the negative enthalpy change of the second step. On the basis of the thermochemical behavior of small molecule interactions, we conclude that the strengthening of hydrogen bonds in the I n the past decade, a complete thermodynamic description of the self-association of many proteins and their interactions From the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (P.D.R.) and Laboratory of Nutrition and Endocrinology (S.S.), National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism and Digestive Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20205. Received September 23, 1980. low dielectric macromolecular interior and van der Waals' interactions introduced as a consequence of the hydrophobic effect are the most important factors contributing to the observed negative values of AHo and ASo and hence to the stability of protein association complexes. The X-ray crystallographic structures of these complexes are consonant with this analysis. The tendency for protein association reactions to become entropy dominated and/or entropy-enthalpy assisted at low temperatures and enthalpy dominated at high temperatures (a consequence of the typically negative values of AC,\") arises from the diminution of the hydrophobic effect with increasing temperature which is a general property of the solvent, water. with small molecular substrates has become available. Concomitantly, X-ray crystallography has provided a detailed picture of some of these associations, and this has stimulated a number of theoretical studies (Levitt & Warshel, 1975; Gelin & Karplus, 1975; Chothia & Janin, 1975), based upon energetic considerations, to account for these structures. The This article not subject to U S . Copyright. Published 1981 by the American Chemical Society T H E R M O D Y N A M I C S O F P R O T E I N A S S O C I A T I O N V O L . 2 0 , N O . 1 1 , 1 9 8 1 3097 Table I: Thermodynamics of Protein Association' association process A G \" ~ AiY A s o , A c p o (kcal mol-') (kcal mol-l) (cal K-I mol-') (cal K-I mol-I) refb trypsin (bovine) + inhibitor (soybean) -14.6 8.6 78 -440 c, d deoxyhemoglobin S gelation -3.4 2.0 18 -200 e, f lysozyme self-association (indefinite) -3.9 -6 .4 -8.3 g glucagon trimerization -12.1 -3 1 -64 -430 h, i hemoglobin t haptoglobin -11.5 -3 3 -7 3 -940 i a-chymotrypsin dimerization -7.1 -35 -9 5 k, I S-peptide + S-protein (ribonuclease) -13 -40 -90 -1100 m, n All thermodynamic parameters expressed per mole of complex formed except the indefinite association cases of hemoglobin S and lysozyme for which the mole refers to the monomeric protein reacted. Unitary entropy and free energy are given for processes of defined stoichiometry. Standard states are hypothetical 1 M protein, pH at which the reaction was measured. All pHs were close to 7 except for trypsin, pH 5, haptoglobin, pH 5.5, and glucagon, pH 10.5. All data for 25 \"C except glucagon, T = 30 \"C. ence is to calorimetric work and the second is to X-ray crystallographic structure determination. al. (1974). e Rosset al. (1977). Wishner e t al. (1975). g Banerjee et al. (1975). Johnson et al. (1979). * Sasaki et al. (1975). For each entry, the first referSweet et Baugh & Trowbridge (1972). Lavialle et al. (1974). Shiao & Sturtevant (1969). lVandlen &Tulinsky (1973). Hearn et al. (1971). Wyckoff e t al. (1970). methodology and problems involved in such calculations have been critically reviewed by NBmethy & Scheraga (1977). In this paper we review the thermodynamics of protein association processes for the examples best characterized in terms of their chemistry and structure. From this survey we find that the thermodynamic parameters AGO, Ai?, AS\", and ACpo are predominantly of negative sign. This result poses severe difficulties for interpretations of protein association based upon the entropically driven hydrophobic effect. The aim of this paper is to attempt to account for the signs and magnitudes of these thermodynamic parameters for protein association reactions in terms of known molecular forces and the thermochemistry of small molecule interactions.

Protein folding in the cell.

Abstract: In the cell, as in vitro, the final conformation of a protein is determined by its amino-acid sequence. But whereas some isolated proteins can be denatured and refolded in vitro in the absence of other macromolecular cellular components, folding and assembly of polypeptides in vivo involves other proteins, many of which belong to families that have been highly conserved during evolution.

How to measure and predict the molar absorption coefficient of a protein.

Abstract: The molar absorption coefficient, E, of a protein is usually based on concentrations measured by dry weight, nitrogen, or amino acid analysis. The studies reported here suggest that the Edelhoch method is the best method for measuring E for a protein. (This method is described by Gill and von Hippel [1989, Anal Biochem 182:3193261 and is based on data from Edelhoch [1967, Biochemistry 6:1948-19541.) The absorbance of a protein at 280 nm depends on the content of Trp, Tyr, and cystine (disulfide bonds). The average E values for these chromophores in a sample of 18 well-characterized proteins have been estimated, and the E values in water, propanol, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride (GdnHCI), and 8 M urea have been measured. For Trp, the average E values for the proteins are less than the E values measured in any of the solvents. For Tyr, the average E values for the proteins are intermediate between those measured in 6 M GdnHCl and those measured in propanol. Based on a sample of 116 measured t values for 80 proteins, the t at 280 nm of a folded protein in water, t(280), can best be predicted with this equation:

Molecular chaperones in cellular protein folding.

Abstract: The folding of many newly synthesized proteins in the cell depends on a set of conserved proteins known as molecular chaperones. These prevent the formation of misfolded protein structures, both under normal conditions and when cells are exposed to stresses such as high temperature. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the ATP-dependent mechanisms used by the Hsp70 and chaperonin families of molecular chaperones, which can cooperate to assist in folding new polypeptide chains.