Frederick Measham Lea

Bio: Frederick Measham Lea is an academic researcher. The author has contributed to research in topics: Polymer concrete & Cement. The author has an hindex of 1, co-authored 1 publications receiving 2398 citations.

The chemistry of cement and concrete

Abstract: The chemistry of cement and concrete , The chemistry of cement and concrete , مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی

Industrially interesting approaches to “low-CO2” cements ☆

Abstract: This article discusses the practicality of replacing portland cements with alternative hydraulic cements that could result in lower total CO 2 emissions per unit volume of concrete of equivalent performance. Currently, the cement industry is responding rapidly to the perceived societal need for reduced CO 2 emissions by increasing the production of blended portland cements using supplementary cementitious materials that are principally derived from industrial by-products, such as blast-furnace slags and coal combustion fly ashes. However, the supplies of such by-products of suitable quality are limited. An alternative solution is to use natural pozzolans, although they must still be activated either by portland cement or lime or by alkali silicates or hydroxides, the production of all of which still involves significant CO 2 emissions. Moreover, concretes based on activated pozzolans often require curing at elevated temperatures, which significantly limits their field of application. The most promising alternative cementing systems for general concrete applications at ambient temperatures currently appear to be those based at least in part on calcium sulfates, the availability of which is increasing due to the widespread implementation of sulfur dioxide emission controls. These include calcium sulfoaluminate–belite–ferrite cements of the type developed in China under the generic name “Third Cement Series” (TCS) and other similar systems that make good use of the potential synergies among calcium sulfate, calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates. However, a great deal more research is required to solve significant unresolved processing and reactivity questions and to establish the durability of concretes made from such cements. If we are to use these potentially more CO 2 -efficient technologies on a large enough scale to have a significant global impact, we will also have to develop the performance data needed to justify changes to construction codes and standards.

Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate minerals

Abstract: We introduce a safe and permanent method of CO2 disposal based on combining CO2 chemically with abundant raw materials to form stable carbonate minerals. Substantial heat is liberated in the overall chemical reaction so that cost will be determined by the simplicity and speed of the reaction rather than the cost of energy. Preliminary investigations have been conducted on two types of processes, involving either direct carbonation of minerals at high temperature or processing in aqueous solution. Promising raw materials are identified in both cases. For aqueous processing, a chemical cycle employing well-known reactions is proposed for digesting and carbonating the raw material. Cost estimates, based on comparison with standard industrial and mining practice, are encouraging. Necessary raw materials are surveyed and vast quantities are found to be easily accessible. Amounts are sufficient to allow utilization of the large known fossil-fuel reserves while avoiding build-up of atmospheric CO2.

Global CO 2 emissions from cement production

Abstract: . The global production of cement has grown very rapidly in recent years, and after fossil fuels and land-use change, it is the third-largest source of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide. The required data for estimating emissions from global cement production are poor, and it has been recognised that some global estimates are significantly inflated. Here we assemble a large variety of available datasets and prioritise official data and emission factors, including estimates submitted to the UNFCCC plus new estimates for China and India, to present a new analysis of global process emissions from cement production. We show that global process emissions in 2016 were 1.45±0.20 Gt CO2, equivalent to about 4 % of emissions from fossil fuels. Cumulative emissions from 1928 to 2016 were 39.3±2.4 Gt CO2, 66 % of which have occurred since 1990. Emissions in 2015 were 30 % lower than those recently reported by the Global Carbon Project. The data associated with this article can be found at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.831455 .

The confused world of sulfate attack on concrete

Abstract: External sulfate attack is not completely understood. Part I identifies the issues involved, pointing out disagreements, and distinguishes between the mere occurrence of chemical reactions of sulfates with hydrated cement paste and the damage or deterioration of concrete; only the latter are taken to represent sulfate attack. Furthermore, sulfate attack is defined as deleterious action involving sulfate ions; if the reaction is physical, then, it is physical sulfate attack that takes place. The discussion of the two forms of sulfate attack leads to a recommendation for distinct nomenclature. Sulfate attack on concrete structures in service is not widespread, and the amount of laboratory-based research seems to be disproportionately large. The mechanisms of attack by different sulfates—sodium, calcium, and magnesium—are discussed, including the issue of topochemical and through-solution reactions. The specific aspects of the action of magnesium sulfate are discussed, and the differences between laboratory conditions and field exposure are pointed out. Part II discusses the progress of sulfate attack and its manifestations. This is followed by a discussion of making sulfate-resisting concrete. One of the measures is to use Type V cement, and this topic is extensively discussed. Likewise, the influence of w/c on sulfate resistance is considered. The two parameters are not independent of one another. Moreover, the cation in the sulfate salt has a strong bearing on the efficiency of the Type V cement. Recent interpretations of the Bureau of Reclamation tests, both long term and accelerated, are evaluated, and it appears that they need reworking. Part III reviews the standards and guides for the classification of the severity of exposure of structures to sulfates and points out the lack of calibration of the various classes of exposure. A particular problem is the classification of soils because much depends on the extraction ratio of sulfate in the soil: there is a need for a standardized approach. Taking soil samples is discussed, with particular reference to interpreting highly variable contents of sulfates. The consequences of disturbed drainage of the soil adjacent to foundations and of excessive irrigation, coupled with the use of fertilizer, are described. Whether concrete has undergone sulfate attack can be established by determining the change in the compressive strength since the time of placing the concrete. The rejection of this method and the reliance on determining the tensile strength of concrete because of “layered damage” are erroneous. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) should not be the primary, and certainly not the first, method of determining whether sulfate attack has occurred. Mathematical modeling will be of help in the future but, at present, cannot provide guidance on the sulfate resistance of concrete in structures. Part IV presents conclusions and an overview of the situation, with consideration of future improvements. Appendix A contains the classification of exposure to sulfate given by various codes and guides.