G. E. Walrafen

Bio: G. E. Walrafen is an academic researcher from Bell Labs. The author has contributed to research in topics: Raman spectroscopy & Raman scattering. The author has an hindex of 6, co-authored 6 publications receiving 1542 citations.

Raman Spectral Studies of Water Structure

Abstract: Raman frequencies and polarizations and infrared frequencies of water and heavy water have been obtained, and the intermolecular vibrations of water have been related to a five‐molecule hydrogen‐bonded C2v model consistent with x‐ray data. Observed variations of the integrated Raman intensity of the 175‐cm—1 hydrogen‐bond‐stretching vibration, with variations of temperature, have been interpreted in terms of the five‐molecule model. That interpretation leads to reasonable values for the enthalpy of hydrogen‐bond formation. Effects of electrolyte addition on the intensity of the 175‐cm—1 band are also described.

Raman Spectral Studies of the Effects of Temperature on Water Structure

Abstract: Integrated Raman intensities of the spectral contour arising from the intermolecular librational motions of pure water have been obtained in the temperature range of ∼10°—95°C. In addition, integrated intensities of nearly symmetric librational components centered near ∼475 and ∼710 cm−1 were obtained from manual contour analysis according to two components. However, contour analysis was also accomplished by means of a special‐purpose analog computer, and three Gaussian librational components having average frequencies of 439, 538, and 717 cm−1 were thus revealed. The total contour intensity, the manually determined component intensities, and the Gaussian component intensities were found to have the same temperature dependence, and that dependence was found to be in excellent quantitative agreement with the previously reported temperature dependence of the hydrogen‐bond‐stretching intensity [J. Chem. Phys. 44, 1546 (1966)]. Integrated Raman intensities of pure water were also obtained in the temperature range of 10°—90°C for the intramolecular valence and deformation contours in the spectral region of ∼2800–3900 cm−1, and near 1645 cm−1, respectively. The integrated intensity of the deformation contour was found to be nearly independent of temperature, but the total integrated intensity of the intramolecular valence contour was found to decrease with increasing temperature. However, heights of the high‐frequency portion of the intramolecular valence contour were observed to increase, whereas heights of the low‐frequency portion were observed to decrease at nearly the same rate, with increasing temperature. An isosbestic point was also found at approximately 3460 cm−1. Further, computeranalysis revealed the existence of four Gaussian components having opposite temperature dependences in pairs—two intense valence components at ∼3247 and ∼3435 cm−1 were found to decrease in intensity with increasing temperature, and two weak components at ∼3535 and ∼3622 cm−1 were found to increase in intensity. Computeranalysis of infrared absorbance spectra also revealed four Gaussian components at approximately 3240, 3435, 3540, and 3620 cm−1. The quantitative agreements involving temperature dependences of the intermolecular hydrogen‐bond‐stretching and librational intensities, as well as the intramolecular valence data, would appear to preclude models of water structure involving consecutive hydrogen‐bond breakage. Continuum models of water structure are also precluded by the inter‐ and intramolecular intensity dependences, and particularly by the isosbestic point in the intramolecular valence region, but a model involving an equilibrium between two forms of water is consistent with all of the data. The two forms refer to water molecules which have or have not surmounted a barrier arising from a partially covalent hydrogen‐bond potential of C 2v symmetry, and they may be described as nonhydrogen‐bonded monomeric water, and as lattice water, respectively. Polarized argon‐ion‐laser—Raman spectra were also obtained in the intermolecular frequency region of the water spectrum, and the depolarization ratios of the intermolecular Raman bands were found to be in complete agreement with predictions from intermolecular C 2v symmetry. Studies of the intramolecular valence region were also made with polarized mercury excitation, and the spectra were analyzed by the analog method. Short‐lived CS intramolecular perturbations were indicated by the observed depolarization ratios of the four Gaussian valence components. Accordingly, CS intramolecular valence perturbations occur in the lattice water, as well as in the nonhydrogen‐bonded water, but the perturbations are of little importance on the intermolecular time scale.

Raman Spectral Studies of the Effects of Electrolytes on Water

Abstract: Photoelectric Raman spectra of water at temperatures from 2° to 94°C have been obtained for the spectral region of about 0–4000 cm—1. Comparisons of these spectra, with Raman spectra of bromide and chloride solutions, indicate that certain intensities, which are increased by lowering the temperature of water, are also increased by electrolyte addition. Such intensity increases of Raman bands of the bromide and chloride solutions appear to be related to the ordering of water and ions. Other Raman bands of water, for which intensity increases occur with lowering of temperature, decrease in intensity with electrolyte addition. Those effects apparently are related to O–H···O bonds.The intensities of various bands studied, e.g., the librational bands, were observed to increase linearly with electrolyte concentration. In addition, marked intensity increases with increasing anionic size, i.e., Br—>Cl—, were observed, but the effects of the cations, while similar with respect to increasing size, appear to be rela...

Raman Spectral Studies of the Effects of Perchlorate Ion on Water Structure

Abstract: Raman contours corresponding to the OD and OH stretching vibrations from HDO, as well as from H2O and D2O, were obtained at 25°C from a series of ternary aqueous solutions containing HDO, ClO4− (Li+, Na+, K+), and H2O or D2O. The Raman spectra were obtained photoelectrically using 4880‐A argon‐ion‐laser excitation, as well as conventional 4358‐A mercury excitation. Quantitative Raman data were obtained from ternary solutions having NaClO4 concentrations from 1 to 4M, and stoichiometric concentrations of 5.51M D2O (H2O as solvent), or 5.53M H2O (D2O as solvent). Raman spectra were also obtained from solutions having lower (and higher) HDO or NaClO4 concentrations. In addition, binary solutions of NaClO4 and H2O or D2O were examined. Addition of ClO4− to solutions containing HDO, and H2O or D2O produces a pronounced splitting of the OD and OH stretching contours from HDO, as well as from D2O and H2O. The splittings are directly observable in the Raman spectra. Two principal peaks or components, having frequ...

Raman and Infrared Spectral Investigations of Water Structure

Abstract: The models that have been proposed to represent the structure of liquid water are too numerous to be described here, but they are discussed in Chapter 14. Two general classes of models of interest for present purposes are usually designated by the terms continuum(1132) and mixture.(356) Continuum models treat water in terms of a continuous distribution of interactions that are presumed to be spectroscopically indistinguishable, whereas mixture models generally relate distinct spectral features to structures differing in the extent of hydrogen bonding. Some of the earlier spectroscopic investigations(1132) appeared to favor continuum models, but recent laser- Raman investigations(1138) as well as results from nonlinear optical techniques such as stimulated Raman scattering and hyper-Raman or inelastic harmonic light scattering strongly favor mixture models, e.g., the consecutive hydrogen-bond disruption model.

The Hofmeister effect and the behaviour of water at interfaces.

Abstract: Starting from known properties of non-specific salt effects on the surface tension at an air–water interface, we propose the first general, detailed qualitative molecular mechanism for the origins of ion-specific (Hofmeister) effects on the surface potential difference at an air–water interface; this mechanism suggests a simple model for the behaviour of water at all interfaces (including water–solute interfaces), regardless of whether the non-aqueous component is neutral or charged, polar or non-polar Specifically, water near an isolated interface is conceptually divided into three layers, each layer being 1 water-molecule thick We propose that the solute determines the behaviour of the adjacent first interfacial water layer ( I 1 ); that the bulk solution determines the behaviour of the third interfacial water layer ( I 3 ), and that both I 1 and I 3 compete for hydrogen-bonding interactions with the intervening water layer ( I 2 ), which can be thought of as a transition layer The model requires that a polar kosmotrope (polar water-structure maker) interact with I 1 more strongly than would bulk water in its place; that a chaotrope (water-structure breaker) interact with I 1 somewhat less strongly than would bulk water in its place; and that a non-polar kosmotrope (non-polar water-structure maker) interact with I 1 much less strongly than would bulk water in its place We introduce two simple new postulates to describe the behaviour of I 1 water molecules in aqueous solution The first, the ‘relative competition’ postulate, states that an I 1 water molecule, in maximizing its free energy (—δG), will favour those of its highly directional polar (hydrogen-bonding) interactions with its immediate neighbours for which the maximum pairwise enthalpy of interaction (—δ H ) is greatest; that is, it will favour the strongest interactions We describe such behaviour as ‘compliant’, since an I 1 water molecule will continually adjust its position to maximize these strong interactions Its behaviour towards its remaining immediate neighbours, with whom it interacts relatively weakly (but still favourably), we describe as ‘recalcitrant’, since it will be unable to adjust its position to maximize simultaneously these interactions The second, the ‘charge transfer’ postulate, states that the strong polar kosmotrope–water interaction has at least a small amount of covalent character, resulting in significant transfer of charge from polar kosmotropes to water–especially of negative charge from Lewis bases (both neutral and anionic); and that the water-structuring effect of polar kosmotropes is caused not only by the tight binding (partial immobilization) of the immediately adjacent ( I 1 ) water molecules, but also by an attempt to distribute among several water molecules the charge transferred from the solute When extensive, cumulative charge transfer to solvent occurs, as with macromolecular polyphosphates, the solvation layer (the layer of solvent whose behaviour is determined by the solute) can become up to 5- or 6-water-molecules thick We then use the ‘relative competition’ postulate, which lends itself to simple diagramming, in conjunction with the ‘charge transfer’ postulate to provide a new, startlingly simple and direct qualitative explanation for the heat of dilution of neutral polar solutes and the temperature dependence of relative viscosity of neutral polar solutes in aqueous solution This explanation also requires the new and intriguing general conclusion that as the temperature of aqueous solutions is lowered towards o °C, solutes tend to acquire a non-uniform distribution in the solution, becoming increasingly likely to cluster 2 water molecules away from other solutes and surfaces (the driving force for this process being the conversion of transition layer water to bulk water) The implications of these conclusions for understanding the mechanism of action of general (gaseous) anaesthetics and other important interfacial phenomena are then addressed

Effect of ions on the structure of water: structure making and breaking.

Abstract: 4. Structure of Ionic Hydration Shells 1351 4.1. Results from Diffraction Experiments 1351 4.1.1. X-ray Diffraction 1351 4.1.2. Neutron Diffraction 1351 4.2. Results from Computer Simulations 1352 4.3. Results from Spectroscopic Measurements 1354 4.3.1. Vibrational Spectroscopic Measurements 1354 4.3.2. EXAFS Spectroscopy 1354 4.3.3. NMR Relaxation Studies 1355 4.3.4. Dielectric Relaxation Studies 1355 4.4. Summary of the Structure of Ionic Hydration Shells 1355

Water: From Clusters to the Bulk

Abstract: Water is of fundamental importance for human life and plays an important role in many biological and chemical systems. Although water is the most abundant compound on earth, it is definitely not a simple liquid. It possesses strongly polar hydrogen bonds which are responsible for a striking set of anomalous physical and chemical properties. For more than a century the combined importance and peculiarity of water inspired scientists to construct conceptual models, which in themselves reproduce the observed behavior of the liquid. The exploration of structural and binding properties of small water complexes provides a key for understanding bulk water in its liquid and solid phase and for understanding solvation phenomena. Modern ab initio quantum chemistry methods and high-resolution spectroscopy methods have been extremely successful in describing such structures. Cluster models for liquid water try to mimic the transition from these clusters to bulk water. The important question is: What cluster properties are required to describe liquid-phase behavior?

Enthalpy-entropy compensation phenomena in water solutions of proteins and small molecules: a ubiquitous property of water.

Abstract: This article presents evidence for the existence of a specific linear relationship between the entropy change and the enthalpy change in a variety of processes of small solutes in water solution. The processes include solvation of ions and nonelectrolytes, hydrolysis, oxidation–reduction, ionization of weak electrolytes, and quenching of indole fluorescence among others. The values of the proportionality constant, called the compensation temperature, lie in a relatively narrow range, from about 250 to 315 °K, for all these processes. Such behavior can be a consequence of experimental errors but for a number of the processes the precision of the data is sufficient to show that the enthalpy–entropy compensation pattern is real. It is tentatively concluded that the pattern is real, very common and a consequence of the properties of liquid water as a solvent regardless of the solutes and the solute processes studied. As such the phenomenon requires that theoretical treatments of solute processes in water be expanded by inclusion of a specific treatment of the characteristic of water responsible for compensation behavior. The possible bases of the effect are proposed to be temperature-independent heat-capacity changes and/or shifts in concentrations of the two phenomenologically significant species of water. The relationship of these alternatives to the two-state process of water suggested by spectroscopic and relaxation studies is examined. The existence of a similar and probably identical relationship between enthalpy and entropy change in a variety of protein reactions suggests that liquid water plays a direct role in many protein processes and may be a common participant in the physiological function of proteins. It is proposed that the linear enthalpy–entropy relationship be used as a diagnostic test for the participation of water in protein processes. On this basis the catalytic processes of chymotrypsin and acetylcholinesterase are dominated by the properties of bulk water. The binding of oxygen by hemoglobin may fall in the same category. Similarities and differences in the behavior of small-solute and protein processes are examined to show how they may be related. No positive conclusions are established, but it is possible that protein processes are coupled to water via expansions and contractions of the protein and that in general the special pattern of enthalpy–entropy compensation is a consequent of the properties of water which require that expansions and contractions of solutes effect changes in the free volume of the nearby liquid water. It is shown that proteins can be expected to respond to changes in nearby water and interfacial free energy by expansions and contractions. Such responses may explain a variety of currently unexplained characteristics of protein solutions. More generally, the enthalpy–entropy compensation pattern appears to be the thermodynamic manifestation of “structure making” and “structure breaking,” operationally defined terms much used in discussions of water solutions. If so, the compensation pattern is ubiquitous and requires re-examination of a large body of molecular interpretations derived from quantitative studies of processes in water. Theories of processes in water may have to be expanded to accommodate this aspect of water behavior.

Handbook of Raman Spectroscopy: From the Research Laboratory to the Process Line

Abstract: Theory of Raman scattering evolution and revolution of Raman instrumentation - application of available technologies to spectroscopy and microscopy Raman spectroscopy and its adaptation to the industrial environment Raman microscopy - confocal and scanning near-field Raman imaging the quest for accuracy in Raman spectra chemometrics for Raman spectroscopy Raman spectra of gases Raman spectroscopy applied to crystals - phenomena and principles, concepts and conventions Raman scattering of glass Raman spectroscopic applications to gemmology Raman spectroscopy on II-IV-semiconductor nanostructures medical applications of Raman spectroscopy - in vivo Raman spectroscopy some pharmaceutical applications of Raman spectroscopy low-frequency Raman spectroscopy and biomolecular dynamics - a comparison between different low-frequency experimental techniques collectivity of vibrational modes Raman spectroscopic studies of ion-ion interactions in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolyte solutions environmental applications of Raman spectroscopy to aqueous solutions Raman and surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering - applications in forensic science application of Raman spectroscopy to organic fibres and films applications of IR and Raman spectra of quasi-elemental carbon process Raman spectroscopy the use of Raman spectroscopy to monitor the quality of carbon overcoats in the disk drive industry Raman spectroscopy in the undergraduate teaching laboratory Raman spectroscopy in the characterization of archaeological materials.