1: Biological Response to Stress: Implications for Animal Welfare, G P Moberg, University of California, USA 2: Some Issues in the Interpretation of Behavioural Responses to Stress, J Rushen, Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Canada 3: Neoroendocrine Responses to Stress, R L Matteri, J A Carroll and C J Dyer, University of Missouri, USA 4: The Metabolic Consequences of Stress: Targets for Stress and Priority of Nutrient Use, T H Elsasser et al., USDA, Agricultural Research Service, USA 5: Immune System Response to Stress, F Blecha, Kansas State University, USA 6: Hands-on and Hands-off Measurement of Stress, C J Cook et al., Horticultural and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, New Zealand 7: Accumulation and Long-Term Effects of Stress in Fish, C B Schreck, Oregon State University, USA 8: Chronic Intermittent Stress: A Model for the Study of Long Term Stressors, J Ladewig, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark 9: Quantifying Some Responses to Pain as a Stressor, D J Mellor, Massey University, New Zealand, C J Cook and K J Stafford, Horticultural and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, New Zealand 10: Multiple Factors Controlling Behaviour: Implications for Stress and Welfare, F Toates, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK 11: Chronic Social Stress: Studies in Nonhuman Primates, S P Mendoza, J P Capitanio and W A Mason, University of California, USA 12: Consequences of Stress During Development, D C Lay Jr., Iowa State University, USA 13: Early Developmental Influences of Experience on Behaviour, Temperament, and Stress, W A Mason, University of California, USA 14: Genetic Selection to Reduce Stress in Animals, T G Pottinger, NERC Institute of Freshwater Ecology, Windermere Laboratory, Cumbria, UK 15: Human-Animal Interactions and Animal Stress, P H Hemsworth and J L Barnett, Agriculture Victoria, Australia 16: Alleviating Stress in Zoo Animals with Environmental Enrichment, K Carlstead, National Zoological Park, Washington, USA and D Shepherdson, Oregon Zoo, USA 17: Understanding the Role of Stress in Animal Welfare: Practical Considerations, T L Wolfle, formerly of the Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, USA

The biology of animal stress: basic principles and implications for animal welfare.

Nitric oxide and iron proteins.

Relationships between nitric oxide, nitroxyl ion, nitrosonium cation and peroxynitrite

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an environmentally important atmospheric trace gas because it is an effective greenhouse gas and it leads to ozone depletion through photo-chemical nitric oxide (NO) production in the stratosphere. Mitigating its steady increase in atmospheric concentration requires an understanding of the mechanisms that lead to its formation in natural and engineered microbial communities. N2O is formed biologically from the oxidation of hydroxylamine (NH2OH) or the reduction of nitrite (NO2-) to NO and further to N2O. Our review of the biological pathways for N2O production shows that apparently all organisms and pathways known to be involved in the catabolic branch of microbial N-cycle have the potential to catalyze the reduction of NO2- to NO and the further reduction of NO to N2O, while N2O formation from NH2OH is only performed by ammonia oxidizing bacteria. In addition to biological pathways, we review important chemical reactions that can lead to NO and N2O formation due to the reactivity of NO2-, NH2OH and nitroxyl (HNO). Moreover, biological N2O formation is highly dynamic in response to N-imbalance imposed on a system. Thus, understanding NO formation and capturing the dynamics of NO and N2O build-up are key to understand mechanisms of N2O release. Here, we discuss novel technologies that allow experiments on NO and N2O formation at high temporal resolution, namely NO and N2O microelectrodes and the dynamic analysis of the isotopic signature of N2O with quantum cascade laser based absorption spectroscopy. In addition, we introduce other techniques that use the isotopic composition of N2O to distinguish production pathways and findings that were made with emerging molecular techniques in complex environments. Finally, we discuss how a combination of the presented tools might help to address important open questions on pathways and controls of nitrogen flow through complex microbial communities that eventually lead to N2O build-up.

/pdf/nitric-oxide-and-nitrous-oxide-turnover-in-natural-and-2ow2ml97xj.pdf

Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide turnover in natural and engineered microbial communities: biological pathways, chemical reactions, and novel technologies

G. Stedman

Papers

The Chemistry of Nitric Oxide and Redox‐Related Species