Objective. —To identify and quantify the major external (nongenetic) factors that contribute to death in the United States. Data Sources. —Articles published between 1977 and 1993 were identified through MEDLINE searches, reference citations, and expert consultation. Government reports and compilations of vital statistics and surveillance data were also obtained. Study Selection. —Sources selected were those that were often cited and those that indicated a quantitative assessment of the relative contributions of various factors to mortality and morbidity. Data Extraction. —Data used were those for which specific methodological assumptions were stated. A table quantifying the contributions of leading factors was constructed using actual counts, generally accepted estimates, and calculated estimates that were developed by summing various individual estimates and correcting to avoid double counting. For the factors of greatest complexity and uncertainty (diet and activity patterns and toxic agents), a conservative approach was taken by choosing the lower boundaries of the various estimates. Data Synthesis. —The most prominent contributors to mortality in the United States in 1990 were tobacco (an estimated 400000 deaths), diet and activity patterns (300 000), alcohol (100 000), microbial agents (90 000), toxic agents (60 000), firearms (35 000), sexual behavior (30 000), motor vehicles (25 000), and illicit use of drugs (20 000). Socioeconomic status and access to medical care are also important contributors, but difficult to quantify independent of the other factors cited. Because the studies reviewed used different approaches to derive estimates, the stated numbers should be viewed as first approximations. Conclusions. —Approximately half of all deaths that occurred in 1990 could be attributed to the factors identified. Although no attempt was made to further quantify the impact of these factors on morbidity and quality of life, the public health burden they impose is considerable and offers guidance for shaping health policy priorities. (JAMA. 1993;270:2207-2212)

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/JAMA/articlepdf/409171/jama_270_18_038.pdf

Actual causes of death in the United States.

Part I. From There to Here - Theoretical Background: 1. From visiousness to viciousness: theories of intergroup relations 2. Social dominance theory as a new synthesis Part II. Oppression and its Psycho-Ideological Elements: 3. The psychology of group dominance: social dominance orientation 4. Let's both agree that you're really stupid: the power of consensual ideology Part III. The Circle of Oppression - The Myriad Expressions of Institutional Discrimination: 5. You stay in your part of town and I'll stay in mine: discrimination in the housing and retail markets 6. They're just too lazy to work: discrimination in the labor market 7. They're just mentally and physically unfit: discrimination in education and health care 8. The more of 'them' in prison, the better: institutional terror, social control and the dynamics of the criminal justice system Part IV. Oppression as a Cooperative Game: 9. Social hierarchy and asymmetrical group behavior: social hierarchy and group difference in behavior 10. Sex and power: the intersecting political psychologies of patriarchy and empty-set hierarchy 11. Epilogue.

http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/98044356.pdf

Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression

OBJECTIVE — To systematically review the incidence of posttransplantation diabetes (PTD), risk factors for its development, prognostic implications, and optimal management. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS — We searched databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, and others) from inception to September 2000, reviewed bibliographies in reports retrieved, contacted transplantation experts, and reviewed specialty journals. Two reviewers independently determined report inclusion (original studies, in all languages, of PTD in adults with no history of diabetes before transplantation), assessed study methods, and extracted data using a standardized form. Meta-regression was used to explain between-study differences in incidence. RESULTS — Nineteen studies with 3,611 patients were included. The 12-month cumulative incidence of PTD is lower (10% in most studies) than it was 3 decades ago. The type of immunosuppression explained 74% of the variability in incidence (P 0.0004). Risk factors were patient age, nonwhite ethnicity, glucocorticoid treatment for rejection, and immunosuppression with high-dose cyclosporine and tacrolimus. PTD was associated with decreased graft and patient survival in earlier studies; later studies showed improved outcomes. Randomized trials of treatment regimens have not been conducted. CONCLUSIONS — Physicians should consider modification of immunosuppressive regimens to decrease the risk of PTD in high-risk transplant recipients. Randomized trials are needed to evaluate the use of oral glucose-lowering agents in transplant recipients, paying particular attention to interactions with immunosuppressive drugs. Diabetes Care 25:583–592, 2002

A systematic review of the literature

https://isiarticles.com/bundles/Article/pre/pdf/36264.pdf

Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health.

Over the last several decades, epidemiological studies have been enormously
successful in identifying risk factors for major diseases However, most of this
research has focused attention on risk factors that are relatively proximal causes of
disease such as diet, cholesterol level, exercise and the like We question the
emphasis on such individually-based risk factors and argue that greater attention
must be paid to basic social conditions if health reform is to have its maximum
effect in the time ahead There are two reasons for this claim First we argue that
individually-based risk factors must be contextualized, by examining what puts
people at risk of risks, if we are to craft effective interventions and improve the
nation's health Second, we argue that social factors such as socioeconomic status
and social support are likely 'fundamental causes" of disease that, because they
embody access to important resources, affect multiple disease outcomes throughmultiple mechanisms, and consequently maintain an association with disease even when intervening mechanisms change Without careful attention to these
possibilities, we run the risk of imposing individually-based intervention strategies
that are ineffective and of missing opportunities to adopt broad-based societal
interventions that could produce substantial health benefits for our citizens

Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease

Background There is an inverse relation between socioeconomic status and mortality. Over the past several decades death rates in the United States have declined, but it is unclear whether all socioeconomic groups have benefited equally. Methods Using records from the 1986 National Mortality Followback Survey (n = 13,491) and the 1986 National Health Interview Survey (n = 30,725), we replicated the analysis by Kitagawa and Hauser of differential mortality in 1960. We calculated direct standardized mortality rates and indirect standardized mortality ratios for persons 25 to 64 years of age according to race, sex, income, and family status. Results The inverse relation between mortality and socioeconomic status persisted in 1986 and was stronger than in 1960. The disparity in mortality rates according to income and education increased for men and women, whites and blacks, and family members and unrelated persons. Over the 26-year period, the inequalities according to educational level increased for whites an...

The increasing disparity in mortality between socioeconomic groups in the United States 1960 and 1986.

OBJECTIVES: The National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS) was used to evaluate potentially avoidable hospital conditions as an indicator of equity and efficiency in the US health care system. METHODS: With the use of 1990 data from the NHDS, the National Health Interview Survey, and the census, national rates of hospitalization were calculated for avoidable conditions by age, race, median income of zip code, and insurance status. RESULTS: An estimated 3.1 million hospitalizations were for potentially avoidable conditions. This was 12% of all hospitalizations in 1990 (excluding psychiatric admissions, women with deliveries, and newborns). Rates of potentially avoidable hospitalizations were higher for persons living in middle- and low-income areas than for persons living in high-income areas, and were higher among Blacks than among Whites. These class and racial differences were also found among the privately insured. Differences among income and racial groups for persons aged 65 and over were not signific...

Gail Fisher

Papers

The increasing disparity in mortality between socioeconomic groups in the United States 1960 and 1986.

Potentially avoidable hospitalizations: inequalities in rates between US socioeconomic groups.

Prospects problems and prerequisites for national health examination surveys in developing countries.