This article reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a focus on formative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior to improve learning According to researchers, formative feedback should be nonevaluative, supportive, timely, and specific Formative feedback is usually presented as information to a learner in response to some action on the learner’s part It comes in a variety of types (eg, verification of response accuracy, explanation of the correct answer, hints, worked examples) and can be administered at various times during the learning process (eg, immediately following an answer, after some time has elapsed) Finally, several variables have been shown to interact with formative feedback’s success at promoting learning (eg, individual characteristics of the learner and aspects of the task) All of these issues are discussed This review concludes with guidelines for generating formative feedback

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Focus on Formative Feedback

Although most agree that games can be engaging and that games can be instructive, there is little consensus regarding the essential characteristics of instructional games. Implicit in the research literature is the notion that if we pair instructional content with certain game features, we can harness the power of games to engage users and achieve desired instructional goals. In this article, the authors present an input-process- output model of instructional games and learning that elaborates (a) the key features of games that are of interest from an instructional perspective; (b) the game cycle of user judgments, behavior, and feedback that is a hallmark of engagement in game play; and (c) the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved. The authors discuss the implications of this approach for the design and implementation of effective instruc- tional games.

https://www.biziga.in/downloads/Garris%20et%20al%20-%202002%20-%20Games,%20motivation,%20and%20learning%20-%20441.pdf

Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model:

Although teachers today recognize the importance of integrating technology into their curricula, efforts are often limited by both external (first-order) and internal (second-order) barriers. Traditionally, technology training, for both preservice and inservice teachers, has focused on helping teachers overcome first-order barriers (e.g., acquiring technical skills needed to operate a computer). More recently, training programs have incorporated pedagogical models of technology use as one means of addressing second-order barriers. However, little discussion has occurred that clarifies the relationship between these different types of barriers or that delineates effective strategies for addressing different barriers. If pre- and inservice teachers are to become effective users of technology, they will need practical strategies for dealing with the different types of barriers they will face. In this paper, I discuss the relationship between first- and second-order barriers and then describe specific strategies for circumventing, overcoming, and eliminating the changing barriers teachers face as they work to achieve technology integration.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/30221096.pdf

Addressing First- and Second-Order Barriers to Change: Strategies for Technology Integration

Instructional media such as computer conferencing engender high levels of student-student and student-teacher interaction; therefore, they can support models of teaching and learning that are highly interactive and consonant with the communicative ideals of university education. This potential and the ubiquity of computer conferencing in higher education prompted three of the authors of the this article to develop a community of inquiry model that synthesizes pedagogical principles with the inherent instructional and access benefits of computer conferencing (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). This article explicates one element of the model, social presence. Social presence is defined as the ability of learners to project themselves socially and affectively into a community of inquiry. A template for assessing social presence in computer conferencing is presented through content analysis of conferencing transcripts. To facilitate explication of the scheme and subsequent replication of this study, selections of coded transcripts are included, along with interrater reliability figures. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications and benefits of assessing social presence for instructors, conference moderators, and researchers.

Les medias educatifs, tel le forum electronique, sont susceptibles d'engendrer un niveau eleve d'interaction entre les etudiants et entre le tuteur et chaque etudiant; par consequent, ils peuvent soutenir des modeles d'enseignement et d'apprentissage qui mettent en valeur l'interaction et qui sont compatibles avec les ideaux communicationnels d'une education universitaire. Ce potentiel, ainsi que l'ubiquite du forum asynchrone dans l'education superieure, ont mene trois des auteurs de cet article a developper un modele de communaute de recherche qui resume les principes pedagogiques applicables au forum electronique en incluant les benefices que l'enseignement peut en retirer et les avantages relatifs a l'accessibilite (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). Cet article explique un element du modele : la presence sociale. On y definit la presence sociale comme la capacite des apprenants de se projeter sur le plan social et emotionnel dans une communaute de recherche. On y decrit un gabarit utilise pour evaluer la presence sociale lors d'une analyse de contenu de transcriptions de forums electroniques. Afin d'aider la comprehension des modalites d'evaluation et de faciliter la reproduction subsequente de cette etude, un echantillonnage de transcriptions codees ainsi que les baremes de fiabilite inter-evaluateurs sont fournis. L'article se termine par une discussion des consequences et des avantages de l'evaluation de la presence sociale du point de vue des formateurs, des animateurs de conference et des chercheurs.

/pdf/assessing-social-presence-in-asynchronous-text-based-2hcjv55ff1.pdf

Assessing Social Presence In Asynchronous Text-based Computer Conferencing

Although research studies in education show that use of technol- ogy can help student learning, its use is generally affected by certain barriers In this paper, we first identify the general barriers typically faced by K-12 schools, both in the United States as well as other countries, when integrating technology into the curriculum for instructional purposes, namely: (a) resources, (b) institution, (c) subject culture, (d) attitudes and beliefs, (e) knowledge and skills, and (f) assessment We then describe the strategies to overcome such barriers: (a) having a shared vision and technology integration plan, (b) overcoming the scarcity of resources, (c) changing attitudes and beliefs, (d) conducting professional development, and (e) reconsidering assessments Finally, we identify several current knowledge gaps pertaining to the barriers and strategies of technology integration, and offer pertinent recommendations for future research

/pdf/integrating-technology-into-k-12-teaching-and-learning-4ix81r3mb4.pdf

Integrating Technology into K-12 Teaching and Learning: Current Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations for Future Research

Preface. Chapter 1. Introduction to the Instructional Design Process. Chapter 2. Identifying the Need for Instruction. Chapter 3. Learner and Contextual Analysis. Chapter 4. Task Analysis. Chapter 5. Instructional Objectives. Chapter 6. Designing the Instructions: Sequencing. Chapter 7. Designing the Instruction: Strategies. Chapter 8. Designing the Instructional Message. Chapter 9. Developing Instructional Materials. Chapter 10. The Many Faces of Evaluation. Chapter 11. Developing Evaluation Instruments. Chapter 12. Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative and Summative Evaluations. Chapter 13. The Role of the Instructional Designer. Chapter 14. Planning and Project Management. Chapter 15. Planning for Instructional Implementation. Appendix. Problem Identification. Glossary.

Designing Effective Instruction

Today, the exponential growth of technology usage in education, via such applications of distance education, Internet access, simulations, and educational games, has raised substantially the focus and importance of educational technology research. In this paper, we examine the past and present research trends, with emphasis on the role and contribution of research evidence for informing instructional practices and policies to improve learning in schools. Specific topics addressed include: (a) varied conceptions of “effective” technology uses in classroom instruction as topics for research, (b) historical trends in research approaches and topics of inquiry; (c) alternative research designs for balancing internal (rigor) and external (relevance) validity; and (d) suggested directions for future research. Attention is devoted to describing varied experimental designs as options for achieving appropriate rigor and relevance of research evidence, and using mixed-methods research for investigating and understanding technology applications in complex real-life settings.

/pdf/educational-technology-research-past-and-present-balancing-27stxun83u.pdf

Educational Technology Research Past and Present: Balancing Rigor and Relevance to Impact School Learning

From the Publisher:
This text focuses on integrating computers into teaching through the use of an inquiry-based, easy-to-use model for creating lesson plans Teachers can use this 10-step process to design student-centered learning environments in which computer technology is integrated as a tool for learning rather than as a delivery mechanism In addition, this text provides many practical examples and tips throughout to facilitate student understanding of chapter content Coupled with this approach is an underlying foundation that addresses the National Education Technology Standards for Students and Teachers and the national curriculum standards 
Features of this edition:
New Chapter 3, Teacher as Designer I: Teacher's Toolbox, includes new material on writing behavioral and cognitive objectives, learner analysis, task analysis, and generative strategies
New Chapter 5, Implementations: From Plan to Action, provides step-by-step guidance for setting up and implementing a lesson that has students using computers during problem-solving lessons
New Chapter 8, The Role of Assessment, presents information on how to use multiple forms of assessment, such as task lists and rubrics, to assess student learning from an integrated lesson
New Chapter 12, Presentation of Results, synthesizes the ideas presented in two chapters of the first edition It describes and illustrates how students can use various computer tools to present their results
New Chapter 14, Educational Software, describes strategies for assessing and integrating inquiry-based and traditional types of software into an NTeQ lesson plan
The two Internet chapters from the first edition have been revised to include a sharper focus on web tools, policies, and using the Internet as a tool in a new Chapter 13, The Internet in the Classroom
A Companion Website extends the content of the text, provides students with many helpful resources, activities, and projects, and allows students to check their comprehension of chapter material

https://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.1.1.14

Integrating Computer Technology into the Classroom

The impact of both personalizing mathematical word problems and rewording them for explic-itness was tested with 68 second-grade students and 59 fifth-grade students in a within-subjects design

The Role of Rewording and Context Personalization in the Solving of Mathematical Word Problems.

Due in part to the diverse characteristics and training of its researchers, the field of instructional technology is currently plagued by much uncertainty regarding meaningful research questions and accepted paradigms for investigating them. Major areas in which these uncertainties are manifested concern the degree of emphasis to be placed on basic versus developmental research and considerations involving the separation of media from methods in research designs. To help researchers achieve a “happier medium” in balancing instructional technology goals with the performance of well-designed and scientifically sound studies, greater attention to three concerns is advocated: the external validity of studies to increase the relevance of findings to applied technologies; usage of media replications to test the generalizability of findings obtained with individual media and to demonstrate delivery applications; and learner control as a potentially effective and practical means of adapting validated instructional strategies to individuals. Each of these issues is discussed in relation to research conducted by the authors and to suggested designs for future studies.

Gary R. Morrison

Papers

Designing Effective Instruction

Educational Technology Research Past and Present: Balancing Rigor and Relevance to Impact School Learning

Integrating Computer Technology into the Classroom

The Role of Rewording and Context Personalization in the Solving of Mathematical Word Problems.

In search of a happy medium in instructional technology research: Issues concerning external validity, media replications, and learner control