Nutrient requirements of poultry

Castor oil: a vital industrial raw material.

Application of ozone for enhancing the microbiological safety and quality of foods: a review.

Aflatoxin B1: A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods.

Molds are parasitic plants that are ubiquitous in livestock feedstuffs. Even though molds themselves reduce the quality of grains, their synthesis of chemical substances termed mycotoxins causes the greatest monetary loss to the animal industry. Five major mycotoxins that impair growth and reproductive efficiency in North America are aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, and ergot. Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Consumption of grains containing aflatoxins by swine affects reproduction indirectly by reducing feed intake and growth. In swine, aflatoxins impair liver and kidney function, delay blood clotting, increase susceptibility to bruising, and interfere with cellular humoral immune systems. Ruminants are comparatively resistant to aflatoxicosis, but presence of aflatoxins in milk of dairy cows is closely monitored for human safety. Depending on environmental conditions, Fusarium roseum can produce either zearalenone or deoxynivalenol. Days 7 to 10 postmating seem to be a critical period of gestation for zearalenone to exert its detrimental actions on early embryonic development. Presence of deoxynivalenol in swine feedstuffs decreases feed intake, causes feed refusal, and induces occasional vomiting. Several species of Penicillium and Aspergillus produce ochratoxin, a mycotoxin that causes necrosis of kidney tissue. Ergot alkaloids produced by Claviceps purpurea on wheat can cause reproductive problems and are associated with lactational failure in swine. Various methods have been developed to remove mycotoxins from infected feedstuffs. Chemical analyses in laboratories as well as diagnostic kits suitable for use at the elevator or farm can be used successfully to identify which mycotoxins are present in suspect feedstuffs.

Mycotoxins and reproduction in domestic livestock.

Peanut meal containing aflatoxins was heat treated in the presence of moisture and chemicals to reduce the aflatoxin content. Treatments with ammonia, methylamine, sodium hydroxide and ozone were effective in either destroying aflatoxins or greatly reducing aflatoxin levels as indicated both by TLC analysis and feeding experiments with ducklings and rats. Weight gains for animals receiving the treated meals were essentially comparable to those for animals receiving aflatoxin-free meal. The treated meals, however, had somewhat reduced protein efficiency ratios, as indicated by rat feeding tests. Complete elimination of aflatoxins from contaminated peanut meal was achieved by extraction with a 90% acetone-10% water (w/w) solvent system. The extracted aflatoxin-free peanut meal gave good growth in the duckling and rat feeding tests, and had a relatively high protein efficiency ratio.

Elimination of aflatoxins from peanut meal.

Aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meal can be inactivated by treatment with gaseous ammonia In pilot plant runs, contaminated peanut meal was ammoniated at two levels each of moisture content, reaction time, temperature and ammonia pressure Thin layer chromatography indicated that ammoniation inactivated the aflatoxins (121 ppb) in the meal to a nondetectable level With a similar treatment, total aflatoxins (350 ppb) in cottonseed meal were reduced to 4 ppb A series of runs was made with large scale equipment using cottonseed meal containing an average of 519 ppb total aflatoxins Under optimum processing conditions, aflatoxin content of this meal was reduced to below 5 ppb and non-detectable levels

Inactivation of aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meals by ammoniation

Organic and inorganic reagents have been tested for destruction or inactivation of the aflatoxins present in peanut and cottonseed meals. The treatments were made in a special laboratory-scale reactor, and were evaluated by determination of the aflatoxins in the products by thin layer chromatography. In some instances, a larger pilot-plant scale reactor was used. Ammonia, methylamine, sodium hydroxide and formaldehyde reduced aflatoxin levels and appear practical for large scale treatments. Effects of various reaction parameters including time, temperature and moisture content on the efficiency of these reagents are presented.

Chemical inactivation of aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meals

Predictions can be made safely that glanded cottonseed is likely to be with us for quite some time. Worldwide, 20 to 22 million metric tons of glanded cottonseed are produced annually. Hence a workable process for the removal of pigment glands is needed urgently if food-grade products are to be made from cottonseed. A brief history of the development of the Liquid Cyclone Process for the preparation of degossypolized cottonseed flour is outlined. Gossypol is removed in pigment glands via liquid cyclones, thus giving the development its name. The process consists of several unique operations including adequate drying of the meats prior to flaking, fluidizing of the flakes using commercial hexane, comminuting the fluidized slurry in a stone mill and adjusting the solids content of the milled slurry for proper separation of the fine flour from the glands, hulls and coarse meal in the cyclones. Finally, the flour is defatted and washed with hexane on a rotary vacuum filter, dried and desolventized under mild conditions to maintain protein quality. It is visualized that the above operations can be incorporated in a satellite plant operated in conjunction with a parent solvent extraction cottonseed oil mill. Sanitary conditions of the satellite plant will meet the exacting standards of the better food processing plants. Raw material specifications as well as type of plant needed and potential markets are discussed.

Degossypolized cottonseed flour—the liquid cyclone process

Results are reported of a series of experimental treatments of flaked castor bean meats and pomaces directed toward total detoxification of the ricin and total destruction or inactivation of the allergenic property.

H. K. Gardner

Papers

Elimination of aflatoxins from peanut meal.

Inactivation of aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meals by ammoniation

Chemical inactivation of aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meals

Degossypolized cottonseed flour—the liquid cyclone process

Detoxification and deallergenization of castor beans