The semiconductor ZnO has gained substantial interest in the research community in part because of its large exciton binding energy (60meV) which could lead to lasing action based on exciton recombination even above room temperature. Even though research focusing on ZnO goes back many decades, the renewed interest is fueled by availability of high-quality substrates and reports of p-type conduction and ferromagnetic behavior when doped with transitions metals, both of which remain controversial. It is this renewed interest in ZnO which forms the basis of this review. As mentioned already, ZnO is not new to the semiconductor field, with studies of its lattice parameter dating back to 1935 by Bunn [Proc. Phys. Soc. London 47, 836 (1935)], studies of its vibrational properties with Raman scattering in 1966 by Damen et al. [Phys. Rev. 142, 570 (1966)], detailed optical studies in 1954 by Mollwo [Z. Angew. Phys. 6, 257 (1954)], and its growth by chemical-vapor transport in 1970 by Galli and Coker [Appl. Phys. ...

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A comprehensive review of zno materials and devices

In this chapter, we will restrict our attention to the ferrites and a few other closely related materials. The great interest in ferrites stems from their unique combination of a spontaneous magnetization and a high electrical resistivity. The observed magnetization results from the difference in the magnetizations of two non-equivalent sub-lattices of the magnetic ions in the crystal structure. Materials of this type should strictly be designated as “ferrimagnetic” and in some respects are more closely related to anti-ferromagnetic substances than they are to ferromagnetics in which the magnetization results from the parallel alignment of all the magnetic moments present. We shall not adhere to this special nomenclature except to emphasize effects, which are due to the existence of the sub-lattices.

Ferromagnetic materials

Highly transparent ZnO-based thin-film transistors (TFTs) are fabricated with optical transmission (including substrate) of ∼75% in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Current–voltage measurements indicate n-channel, enhancement-mode TFT operation with excellent drain current saturation and a drain current on-to-off ratio of ∼107. Threshold voltages and channel mobilities of devices fabricated to date range from ∼10 to 20 V and ∼0.3 to 2.5 cm2/V s, respectively. Exposure to ambient light has little to no observable effect on the drain current. In contrast, exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation results in persistent photoconductivity, associated with the creation of electron-hole pairs by ultraviolet photons with energies greater than the ZnO band gap. Light sensitivity is reduced by decreasing the ZnO channel layer thickness. One attractive application for transparent TFTs involves their use as select-transistors in each pixel of an active-matrix liquid-crystal display.

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ZnO-based transparent thin-film transistors

Recent advances in the theory and experimental realization of ferromagnetic semiconductors give hope that a new generation of microelectronic devices based on the spin degree of freedom of the electron can be developed. This review focuses primarily on promising candidate materials (such as GaN, GaP and ZnO) in which there is already a technology base and a fairly good understanding of the basic electrical and optical properties. The introduction of Mn into these and other materials under the right conditions is found to produce ferromagnetism near or above room temperature. There are a number of other potential dopant ions that could be employed (such as Fe, Ni, Co, Cr) as suggested by theory [see, for example, Sato and Katayama-Yoshida, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., Part 2 39, L555 (2000)]. Growth of these ferromagnetic materials by thin film techniques, such as molecular beam epitaxy or pulsed laser deposition, provides excellent control of the dopant concentration and the ability to grow single-phase layers. T...

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Wide band gap ferromagnetic semiconductors and oxides

Determination of the crystal structure of ${\mathrm{Nd}}_{2}$${\mathrm{Fe}}_{14}$B, a new ternary phase, is reported. It has recently been demonstrated that permanent magnets having large coercivities and energy products can be formed from this phase, underscoring its potential technological importance. We relate the crystal structure and intrinsic magnetic properties by considering analogies with previously known rare-earth---transition-metal materials.

Relationships between crystal structure and magnetic properties in Nd 2 Fe 14 B

Dilute magnetic semiconductor GaN with a Curie temperature above room temperature has been achieved by manganese doping. By varying the growth and annealing conditions of Mn-doped GaN we have identified Curie temperatures in the range of 228–370 K. These Mn-doped GaN films have ferromagnetic behavior with hysteresis curves showing a coercivity of 100–500 Oe. Structure characterization by x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy indicated that the ferromagnetic properties are not a result of secondary magnetic phases.

Room temperature ferromagnetic properties of (Ga, Mn)N

Room temperature magnetic (Ga,Mn)N: a new material for spin electronic devices

High coercivity permanent magnet materials based on iron-rare-earth-carbon alloys

In the phase Fe14R2X, where R is a lanthanide and X is either boron or carbon, or a mixture of the two, the extent of stability of the carbides and their miscibility with the borides is traced for the lighter rare‐earth metals. Like the borides, the carbides are magnetically hard, but unlike them, they do not normally crystallize from the melt, and this property is exploited to produce intrinsic coercivities above 12 kOe in cast materials without the added special processing step of sintering or melt spinning. The high coercivity is related to a cellular microstructure of Fe14R2X in which the cell size is approximately 1 μm. The cell structure, which originates in a peritectoidlike transformation from primary Fe17R2, is quite stable and does not change during prolonged annealing. The coercivity is sensitive to variations in composition.

Hans H. Stadelmaier

Papers

Room temperature ferromagnetic properties of (Ga, Mn)N

Room temperature magnetic (Ga,Mn)N: a new material for spin electronic devices

High coercivity permanent magnet materials based on iron-rare-earth-carbon alloys

High intrinsic coercivities in iron‐rare earth‐carbon‐boron alloys through the carbide or boro‐carbide Fe14R2X (X=BxC1−x)

The metallurgy of the iron-neodymium-boron permanent magnet system