1. Introduction 2. Theoretical foundations 3. Propagation and focusing of optical fields 4. Spatial resolution and position accuracy 5. Nanoscale optical microscopy 6. Near-field optical probes 7. Probe-sample distance control 8. Light emission and optical interaction in nanoscale environments 9. Quantum emitters 10. Dipole emission near planar interfaces 11. Photonic crystals and resonators 12. Surface plasmons 13. Forces in confined fields 14. Fluctuation-induced phenomena 15. Theoretical methods in nano-optics Appendices Index.

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Principles of nano-optics

New polymer synthesis by nitroxide mediated living radical polymerizations.

Metal-catalyzed living radical polymerization.

We present the science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, targeting an evolution in technology, that might lead to impacts and benefits reaching into most areas of society. This roadmap was developed within the framework of the European Graphene Flagship and outlines the main targets and research areas as best understood at the start of this ambitious project. We provide an overview of the key aspects of graphene and related materials (GRMs), ranging from fundamental research challenges to a variety of applications in a large number of sectors, highlighting the steps necessary to take GRMs from a state of raw potential to a point where they might revolutionize multiple industries. We also define an extensive list of acronyms in an effort to standardize the nomenclature in this emerging field.

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Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems

Recent advances in the exploitation of localized surface plasmons (charge density oscillations confined to metallic nanoparticles and nanostructures) in nanoscale optics and photonics, as well as in the construction of sensors and biosensors, are reviewed here. In particular, subsequent to brief surveys of the most-commonly used methods of preparation and arraying of materials with localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), and of the optical manifestations of LSPR, attention will be focused on the exploitation of metallic nanostructures as waveguides; as optical transmission, information storage, and nanophotonic devices; as switches; as resonant light scatterers (employed in the different near-field scanning optical microscopies); and finally as sensors and biosensors.

Exploitation of Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance

Interferometric near-field optical microscopy achieving a resolution of 10 angstroms is demonstrated. The scattered electric field variation caused by a vibrating probe tip in close proximity to a sample surface is measured by encoding it as a modulation in the optical phase of one arm of an interferometer. Unlike in regular near-field optical microscopes, where the contrast results from a weak source (or aperture) dipole interacting with the polarizability of the sample, the present form of imaging relies on a fundamentally different contrast mechanism: sensing the dipole-dipole coupling of two externally driven dipoles (the tip and sample dipoles) as their spacing is modulated.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/269/5227/1083.full.pdf

Scanning interferometric apertureless microscopy: optical imaging at 10 angstrom resolution.

A near field optical microscopy method and apparatus eliminates the necessity of an aperture for scanning a sample surface (18) and greatly reduces the detected background signal. A small dimension tip (14), on the order of atomic dimension, is disposed in close promity to the sample surface (18). A dither motion is applied to the tip (14) at a first frequency in a direction substantially normal (22) to the plane of the sample surface (18). Dither motion is simultaneously applied to the sample (20) at a second frequency in a direction substantially parallel (24) to the plane of the sample surface (18). The amplitude of the motions are chosen to be comparable to the desired measurement resolution. The end (12) of the tip (14) is illuminated by optical energy. The scattered light from the tip (14) and surface (18) is detected at the difference frequency for imaging the sample surface (18) at sub-wavelength resolution without the use of an aperture. Alternatively, the tip (14) is maintained stationary and the sample (20) undergoes motion in the two directions.

Apertureless near field optical microscopy

A memory cell and method of fabricating the memory cell includes an insulating layer formed on a first electrode layer, the insulating layer having a first opening, a stencil layer formed on the insulating layer, and having a second opening formed in an area of the first opening, a phase-change material layer formed on a surface of the first electrode layer in the first opening, and an electrically conductive layer including a first portion formed on the stencil layer and defining a second electrode layer and a second portion formed on the phase-change material layer.

Phase-change memory cell and method of fabricating the phase-change memory cell

Disclosed are a phase change memory cell and a method of forming the memory cell. The memory cell comprises a main body of phase change material connected directly to a bottom contact and via a narrow channel of phase change material to a top contact. The channel is tapered from the top contact towards the main body. A minimum width of the channel has a less than minimum lithographic dimension and is narrower than a width of the main body. Therefore, the channel provides a confined region for the switching current path and restricts phase changing to within the channel. In addition an embodiment of the memory cell isolates the main body of phase change material by providing a space between the phase change material and the cell walls. The space allows the phase change material to expand and contract and also limits heat dissipation.

Structure for confining the switching current in phase memory (PCM) cells

The present invention discloses apparatus and method for decoding high density data encoded in a digital recording media as a series of tags comprising an information bit pattern including a tracking bit pattern. To this end, the invention preferably accesses the data by way of an interferometric near field microscope.

Hemantha K. Wickramasinghe

Papers

Scanning interferometric apertureless microscopy: optical imaging at 10 angstrom resolution.

Apertureless near field optical microscopy

Phase-change memory cell and method of fabricating the phase-change memory cell

Structure for confining the switching current in phase memory (PCM) cells

Method and apparatus for mass data storage