The stopping and range of ions in matter is physically very complex, and there are few simple approximations which are accurate. However, if modern calculations are performed, the ion distributions can be calculated with good accuracy, typically better than 10%. This review will be in several sections: 

a)

A brief exposition of what can be determined by modern calculations.




b)

A review of existing widely-cited tables of ion stopping and ranges.




c)

A review of the calculation of accurate ion stopping powers.

The stopping and range of ions in solids

Ion implantation is being applied extensively to silicon device technology. Two principle features are utilized- 1) charge control in MOS structures for threshold shift, autoregistration, and complementary wells and 2) distribution control in microwave and bipolar structures. Another feature that has not been extensively exploited is to combine the advantages of the high resolution capabilities of electric beam pattern delineation with the low lateral spread inherent in the implantation process. This talk reviews some of the general features of the characteristics of implanted layers in terms of depth distribution, radiation damage and electron activity. Implantation processes in silicon are reasonably well understood. There remain areas which require further clarification. For compound semiconductors, particularly GaAs, implantation techniques offer attractive possibilities for the fabrication of high frequency devices. In these materials, the substrate temperature during implantation and the dielectric coating required to prevent dissociation during thermal anneal play major roles.

Ion implantation in semiconductors

The motion of energetic charged particles inside a monocrystalline solid can be strongly influenced by channeling and blocking effects. The present article reviews the theory, the experimental studies, and some of the applications of these effects. The coverage of the published literature extends through June 1973.

Channeling and related effects in the motion of charged particles through crystals

Ion Implantation in Semiconductors

New results for the double beta decay of 76
Ge are presented. They are extracted from data obtained with the HEIDELBERG-MOSCOW experiment, which operates five enriched 76
Ge detectors in an extreme low-level environment in the Gran Sasso underground laboratory. The two-neutrino-accompanied double beta decay is evaluated for the first time for all five detectors with a statistical significance of 47.7 kg y resulting in a half-life of T
1/2
2ν = [1.55±0.01(stat)+0.19
-0.15(syst)]×1021 y. The lower limit on the half-life of the 0νββ decay obtained with pulse shape analysis is T
1/2
0ν > 1.9×1025(3.1×1025) y with 90% C.L. (68% C.L.) (with 35.5 kg y). This results in an upper limit of the effective Majorana-neutrino mass of 0.35 eV (0.27 eV) using the matrix elements of A. Staudt et al.'s work (Europhys. Lett. 13, 31 (1990)). This is the most stringent limit at present from double beta decay. No evidence for a majoron-emitting decay mode is observed.

Latest Results from the Heidelberg-Moscow Double Beta Decay Experiment

The electronic stopping cross sections for protons in aluminum are reported in the energy interval 10 < E < 70 keV. Stopping cross sections below 150 keV in carbon targets for projectiles with , an...

Some low-energy atomic stopping cross sections

Measurements are reported of the energy loss suffered by H1 and He4 particles, of 4- to 30-kev energy, in passing through thin films of carbon, aluminum oxide, and VYNS. Only those particles that e...

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ENERGY LOSS IN CONDENSED MATTER OF H1 AND He4 IN THE ENERGY RANGE 4 < E < 30 kev*:

The electronic stopping cross sections in boron for atomic projectiles with Z≤ 11 have been determined in the energy interval 15 to 140 keV. Reasonable agreement is found with theory, however the previously observed periodic dependence of Sε on the atomic number of the projectile is also evident. Results for the relative straggling in energy loss are reported for hydrogen projectiles in boron, carbon, and aluminium targets and for helium projectiles in boron and carbon. Theoretical straggling estimates agree reasonably well with the experimental results.

Stopping Cross Sections in Boron of Low Atomic Number Atoms with Energies from 15 to 140 keV

Recent improvements to both the instrumentation and data-analysis techniques associated with the Manitoba II high-resolution mass spectrometer have led to greater precision and accuracy. The mass difference between {sup 76}Ge and {sup 76}Se has been redetermined to be 2038.56(32) keV. When this new {ital Q} value is used to reexamine recent spectra reported by groups searching for the characteristic sharp peak expected for neutrinoless double-beta decay, no evidence for the occurrence of such a decay is found. New upper limits can be derived for the electron-neutrino mass.

Precise determination of the mass difference 76Ge-76Se and a derived upper limit on the mass for the electron neutrino.

A high resolution, second‐order double‐focusing mass spectrometer has been constructed for the precise determination of atomic mass differences. The instrument has a mean radius of curvature in the electrostatic analyzer of 1 m and has operated with a resolving power at the base of the peaks of ∼200 000. Details of current operation are given. The best precision achieved to date is 2.5×10−9, corresponding to ∼250 eV at M = 100 amu; typical precision is ∼5×10−9.

Henry E. Duckworth

Papers

Some low-energy atomic stopping cross sections

ENERGY LOSS IN CONDENSED MATTER OF H1 AND He4 IN THE ENERGY RANGE 4 < E < 30 kev*:

Stopping Cross Sections in Boron of Low Atomic Number Atoms with Energies from 15 to 140 keV

Precise determination of the mass difference 76Ge-76Se and a derived upper limit on the mass for the electron neutrino.

A high resolution mass spectrometer for atomic mass determinations