Sampling and Data Treatment Methods Sampling Methods in Surface Waters, Munro Mortimer, Jochen F. Muller, and Matthias Liess Methods of Treatment of Data, Riccardo Leardi Radioanalytical Analysis Radioanalytical Methodology for Water Analysis, Jorge S. Alvarado Organoleptical Analysis Organoleptical Methodology, Abdul Moheman, Md. Musawwer Khan, and K. S. Siddiqi Analysis of Biological Parameters Bacteriological Analysis of Water, Paulinus Chigbu and Salina Parveen Marine Toxins Analysis, Luis M. Botana, A. Alfonso, M. R. Vieytes, N. Vilarino, A. M. Botana, C. Louzao, and C. Vale Algal Analysis, Leonardo Rubi Rorig Halogens, N-Compounds, and Phosphates Halogens, Geza Nagy and Livia Nagy Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Water, Leo M. L. Nollet Determination of Ammonia in Water Samples, Juliana Antunes Galvao, Alexandre Matthiensen, Marilia Oetterer, Y. Moliner-Martinez, R. A. Gonzalez-Fuenzalida, M. Munoz-Ortuno, R. Herraez-Hernandez, J. Verdu-Andres, C. Molins-Legua, and P. Campins Falco Nitrites and Nitrates, Adnan Aydin Phosphates in Aquatic Systems, Alexandre Matthiensen, Juliana Antunes Galvao, and Marilia Oetterer Cyanides, Asbestos, Metals, and Si-Compounds Cyanides, Leo M. L. Nollet Asbestos in Water, James S. Webber Heavy Metals, Major Metals, Trace Elements, Jorge E. Marcovecchio, Sandra E. Botte, Claudia E. Domini, and Ruben H. Freije Determination of Silicon and Silicates, Salah M. Sultan Organic Parameters Main Parameters and Assays Involved with the Organic Pollution of Water, Lorena Vidal, Claudia E. Domini, and Antonio Canals Determination of Organic Nitrogen in the Aquatic Environment, Juliana Antunes Galvao, Alexandre Matthiensen, and Marilia Oetterer Determination of Urea in Aquatic Samples, Juliana Antunes Galvao, Alexandre Matthiensen, and Marilia Oetterer Organic Acids, Mercedes Gallego Fernandez, Evaristo Ballesteros Tribaldo, and Beatriz Jurado Sanchez Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Water, Ivan P. Roman Falco and Marta Nogueroles Moya Phenolic and Humic Compounds Determination of Phenolic Compounds in Water, Leo M. L. Nollet Characterization of Humic Matter, Leo M. L. Nollet Residues of Pesticides Determination of Pesticides in Water, Evaristo Ballesteros Tribaldo Analysis of Herbicide and Fungicide Residues in Waters, N. Sridhara Chary, Maria Jose Gomez Ramos, and Amadeo R. Fernandez-Alba Residues of PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFS, and PAHs Analysis of PCBs in Waters, L. Bartolome, O. Zuloaga, and N. Etxebarria PCDDs and PCDFs, Luigi Turrio-Baldassarri, Paola Pettine, and Laura Achene Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Chimezie Anyakora Surfactants and Petroleum Hydrocarbon Analysis Surfactants, Eva Pocurull and Rosa Maria Marce Petroleum Hydrocarbon Analysis, Ivan P. Roman Falco EDCs and Residues of Plastics Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, and Personal Care Products, Dimitra A. Lambropoulou and Eleni Evgenidou Residues of Plastics, Dimitra A. Lambropoulou and Eleni Evgenidou Index

Handbook of Water Analysis

Basic Chemical Properties of Pu, Np, and Am 4690 Development of Separation Procedures for the Determination of Pu, Np, and Am Isotopes 4691 Sample Preparation/Preconcentration 4691 Chemical Separation of Actinides 4692 Liquid Liquid Extraction (LLE) 4692 Ion Exchange 4696 Extraction Chromatography (EC) 4698 Combined Procedures for the Determination of Various Actinides 4701 Application of FI/SI System to Separation of Actinides 4703 R Source Preparation 4703 Comparative Evaluation of Different Separation Procedures 4704 Procedures for Pu Determination 4704 Procedures for Np Determination 4704 Procedures for Am Determination 4704 Procedures for Determination of Various Actinides 4704 Radiometric Measurement Techniques 4704 Radioactive Tracers 4705 R Spectrometry 4705 Liquid Scintillation Counting 4706 β and Electron Counting 4706 R Spectrometry Using LSC 4706 γ Spectrometry 4706 NAA 4706 Comparison of Radiometric and Mass Spectrometric Measurement Techniques 4714 Radiometric Methods 4714 ICPMS 4714 Other Mass Spectrometric Techniques 4715 Conclusions 4715 Author Information 4715 Biographies 4716 Acknowledgment 4716 References 4716 A great number of analytical methods have been developed and applied for the determination of plutonium, neptunium, and americium isotopes in environmental and nuclear samples using radiometric techniques. This paper is intended to give an overview about the development of the radiochemical procedures starting with a brief description of the “historic” procedures from the early times of nuclear industry followed by a more detailed discussion of the recent developments from the 1990s until 2011. Nuclear measuring techniques, i.e., R, β, γ, and X-ray spectrometry, and neutron activation analysis are critically discussed. Capabilities of these techniques are compared with those of mass spectrometric techniques. Transuranium isotopes are present in the environment on a global scale from weapons testing and satellite failure and on a local scale from nuclear operations and accidents. Since the present levels of contamination are typically low from the points of determination and radiological safety, sensitive analytical techniques are needed for the exact measurement. Plutonium has three long-lived R-isotopes and one β-emitting isotope in the environment, i.e., Pu (t1/2 = 87.74 years), Pu (t1/2 = 24 110 years), Pu (t1/2 = 6561 years), and Pu (t1/2 = 14.4 years), respectively, that are produced in nuclear reaction and decay processes according to the following equations:

Determination of transuranium isotopes (Pu, Np, Am) by radiometric techniques: a review of analytical methodology.

A great number of analytical methods have been developed and applied for the determination of plutonium isotopes in environmental and nuclear samples using alpha spectrometry. This paper is intended to give an overview about the development of the radiochemical procedures for the separation of plutonium starting with a brief description of the “historic” procedures from the early times of nuclear industry followed by a more detailed discussion of the recent developments from the nineties till 2008. Nuclear measuring techniques i.e. semiconductor alpha spectrometry and liquid scintillation counting are critically discussed. Capabilities of these techniques are compared with those of mass spectrometric techniques.

Determination of Pu isotopes by alpha spectrometry: a review of analytical methodology

A great number of analytical methods have been developed and applied for the determination of 241Am isotope in environmental and nuclear samples using various measuring techniques, i.e. alpha and gamma spectrometry, liquid scintillation counting and mass spectrometry. This paper is intended to give an overview about the development of the radiochemical procedures for the separation of americium starting with a brief description of the analytical procedures from the “historic” times, followed by a more detailed discussion of the recent developments from the middle of 1990s till 2009 and giving an outlook to the procedures under development aiming the technological separation of americium from radioactive wastes and process solutions for purposes of partitioning of minor actinides. Nuclear measuring techniques and mass spectrometric techniques will be comparatively evaluated.

Determination of 241Am isotope: a review of analytical methodology

The thesis deals with the occurrence of 238U-series radionuclides and particlebound 210Pb and 210Po in Finnish groundwater-based drinking water, methods used for removing 234U, 238U, 210Pb and 210Po, and the annual effective doses caused by 238U-series radionuclides in drinking water. In order to reduce radiation exposure and avoid high doses, it is important to examine the activity levels of natural radionuclides in groundwater. In this work, the activity concentrations of radon (222Rn), radium (226Ra), uranium (238U and 234U), lead (210Pb) and polonium (210Po) were determined from 472 private wells, which were selected randomly from across Finland. On the basis of the results, the activity concentrations in groundwater and the radiation exposure from drinking water of people living outside the public water supply in Finland was specified. The efficiency of 238U, 234U, 210Pb and 210Po removal from drinking water was examined at ten private homes. In order to obtain accurate results and correct estimates of effective doses, attention was paid to the sampling of 222Rn and 210Pb, and the determination of 210Pb. The results revealed that the median activity concentrations of natural radionuclides were as much as ten times higher in drilled wells than in wells dug in soil. The average activity concentration of 222Rn in drilled wells was 460 Bq/l and in dug wells 50 Bq/l. The highest activity concentrations were found in Southern Finland. In addition, occasional high activity concentrations were found all over Finland. The average activity concentrations of 234U and 238U in drilled wells were 0.35 and 0.26 Bq/l and in dug wells 0.020 and 0.015 Bq/l, respectively. The spatial distribution of 234U, 238U, 210Pb and 210Po was essentially similar to that of 222Rn. In contrast to other natural radionuclides, the highest 226Ra activity concentrations were found in coastal areas, since drilled well water near the sea has a higher salinity than water in drilled wells inland. 210Pb and 210Po occur in untreated groundwater as ions, molecules, complexes and bound to particles of different sizes depending on the chemical quality of the water. In Finnish groundwater, the majority of 210Pb was bound to the large particle fraction. Compared to 210Pb, 210Po was bound more to the intermediate and small particle fraction.

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238U–series radionuclides in Finnish groundwater-based drinking water and effective doses

An extraction procedure utilizing alpha liquid scintillation was evaluated for the rapid determination of uranium in aqueous environmental samples. The extraction efficiency of the system was measured under varying chemical conditions including pH. The procedure was evaluated against a traditional radiochemical technique using both laboratory prepared control samples and actual groundwater. Finally, the possibility of obtaining isotopic information from the liquid scintillation spectra was also investigated using a curve fitting routine.

Evaluation of a direct extraction/liquid scintillation counting technique for the measurement of uranium in water

The use of ion chromatography and on-line scintillation counting for the measurement of non-gamma emitters was evaluated for its applicability to reactor coolant. Potential chemical and radiological interferences were identified and a procedure was developed to eliminate them. The method was tested on a sample of simulated pressurized water reactor coolant.

J. D. Leyba

Papers

Evaluation of a direct extraction/liquid scintillation counting technique for the measurement of uranium in water

Ion chromatography and on-line scintillation counting for the analysis of non-gamma emitting radionuclides in reactor coolant