자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

Microaggressions are subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously. Using critical race theory as a framework, the study described in this article provides an examination of racial microaggressions and how they influence the collegiate racial climate. Using focus group interview data from African American students at three universities, it reveals that racial microaggressions exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment. The study shows how African American students experience and respond to racial microaggressions. It also demonstrates how racial microaggressions have a negative impact on the campus racial climate. ... one must not look for the gross and obvious. The subtle, cumulative miniassault is the substance of today's racism... (Pierce, 1974, p. 516) In and of itself a microaggression may seem harmless, but the cumulative burden of a lifetime of microaggressions can theoretically contribute to diminished mortality, augmented morbidity, and flattened confidence. (Pierce, 1995, p. 281) These two epigraphs by psychiatrist Chester Pierce over a 21-year period speak volumes about an important, persistent, and underresearched social problem in the United States: racial microaggressions. Little is known about microaggressions, and yet this subtle form of racism has a dramatic impact on the lives of African Americans. Pierce and his colleagues have defined racial microaggressions as "subtle, stunning, often automatic, and nonverbal exchanges which are 'put downs' of blacks by offenders" (Pierce, Carew, Pierce-Gonzalez, & Wills, 1978, p. 66). They further maintain that these "offensive mechanisms used against blacks often are innocuous" and that the "cumulative weight of their never-ending burden is the major ingredient in black-white interactions" (p. 66). Additionally, Davis (1989) defined racial microaggressions as "stunning, automatic acts of disregard that stem from unconscious attitudes of white superiority and constitute a verification of black inferiority" (p. 1576). Racial microaggressions, or unconscious and subtle forms of racism, though pervasive, are seldom investigated (Delgado & Stefancic, 1992; Johnson, 1988; Lawrence, 1987; Sol6rzano, 1998). Occasionally, African American students get a glimpse into the world of unconscious racism as demonstrated in comments such as those related to us by students who participated in the study described in this article: "When I [a White person] talk about those Blacks, I really wasn't talking about you," "You [a Black person] are not like the rest of them. You're different," "If only there were more of them [Black people] like you [a Black person]," and "I don't think of you [a Black person] as Black." Referring to White authority figures in particular (i.e., judges and other criminal justice authorities), Davis (1989) has suggested that Whites are capable of such utterances because "cognitive habit, history, and culture [have made them] unable to hear the range of relevant voices and grapple with what reasonably might be said in the voice of discrimination's victims" (p. 1576). Subsequently, as Pierce (1974) maintained, each Black person "must be taught to recognize these microaggressions and construct his future by taking appropriate action at each instance of recognition" (p. 520). RACE, RAcism, AND RACIAL MICROAGGRESSIONS Our study of the collegiate racial climate and the effect of racial microaggressions begins by defining race and racism. One can argue that dominant groups often attempt to legitimate their position via ideological means or a set of beliefs that explains or justifies some actual or potential social arrangement. According to Banks (1995), an examination of U.S. history reveals that the "color line" of race is a socially constructed category, created to differentiate racial groups and to show the superiority or dominance of one race-in particular, Whites-over others. …

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2696265.pdf

Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students.

Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students

Despite the abundance of published material on conducting focus groups, scant specific information exists on how to analyze focus group data in social science research. Thus, the authors provide a ...

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A Qualitative Framework for Collecting and Analyzing Data in Focus Group Research

While there are many books that address focus groups, most are directed at business and marketing. This book differs by demonstrating the specific steps necessary to conduct focus groups in educational and psychological settings. Using numerous examples, the authors show how to prepare for a focus group, create a moderator's guide, select a setting and analyze results. In addition, there is a chapter on focus groups with children and adolescents. Each chapter contains procedural tables as well as applications for performing `trial runs' of the techniques discussed.

Focus Group Interviews in Education and Psychology

This study examined 60 general education teachers' classrooms, K-12, that included students with learning disabilities. The study examined how general education teachers' behaviors toward mainstreamed students with learning disabilities compared with their behavior toward students without disabilities, and the interactions between students, and between students and teacher. Observations using the Classroom Climate Scale indicated that few teacher behaviors and classroom practices were different for the two groups of students. However, differences were found in student behaviors. Overall, students with learning disabilities interacted with the teacher, other students, and classroom activities at much lower rates than did other students.

Observations of Students with Learning Disabilities in General Education Classrooms

This study sought to determine teachers' perceptions of the desirability and feasibility of adaptations for mainstreamed students in their general education classes. Of particular interest was how teachers of different grade levels would respond to adaptations. Elementary (n = 25), middle school (n = 23), and high school (n = 45) teachers rated both the desirability and feasibility of 30 items on the Adaptation Evaluation Instrument (AEI) on a Likert-type scale. The 30 items represented adaptations derived from two sources, (1) a review of literature and (2) transcripts from a series of focused group interviews. Results indicated statistically significant differences between the mean desirability and feasibility ratings of each inventory item, with all adaptations perceived as more desirable than feasible. Surprisingly few differences between grade groupings surfaced. Findings are discussed in light of teacher preferences for various adaptations.

Making Adaptations for Mainstreamed Students: General Classroom Teachers' Perspectives

Every chapter includes "Chapter Outline," "Focus Questions," "Introduction," "Summary," "Key Terms and Concepts," "Tips for Teachers," "Research Brief," "Tech Talk," "Making a Difference: The 60-Second Lesson," "Think and Apply," and "Read More About It" 1 Special Education and Inclusive Schooling IDEA and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act Responsibilities of Classroom Teachers Role of Collaboration in Meeting Students' Special Needs Inclusion 2 Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Learning Disabilities Definitions and Types of Learning Disabilities Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities Prevalence of Learning Disabilities Identification and Assessment of Students with Learning Disabilities Instructional Techniques and Accommodations with Students with Learning Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Definitions and Types of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Characteristics of Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Identification and Assessment of Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 3 Teaching Students with Communication Disorders and with Pervasive Developmental Disorders Communication Disorders Prevalence of Communication Disorders Identification and Assessment of Students with Communication Disorders Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Communication Disorders Pervasive Developmental Disorders Prevalence of Pervasive Developmental Disorders Identification and Assessment of Students with Pervasive Developmental Disorders Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Pervasive Developmental Disorders Addressing Challenging Behaviors 4 Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Definitions of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Prevalence of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Types and Characteristics Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Causes of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Identification and Assessment of Students with Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Teaching Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 5 Teaching Students with Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities Definition and Types of Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities Prevention of Mental Retardation Prevalence of Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities Characteristics of Students with Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities Identification and Assessment of Students with Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Teaching Students with Mental Retardation and Severe Disabilities 6 Teaching Students with Visual Impairments, Hearing Loss, Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments, or Traumatic Brain Injury Students with Visual Impairments Definition and Types of Visual Impairments Characteristics of Students with Visual Impairments Prevalence of Visual Impairments Identification and Assessment of Students with Visual Impairments Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Visual Impairments Students with Hearing Loss Definition and Types of Hearing Loss Characteristics of Students with Hearing Loss Prevalence of Hearing Loss Identification and Assessment of Students with Hearing Loss Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Hearing Loss Students with Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Definition and Types of Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Prevalence of Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Characteristics of Students with Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Identification and Assessment of Students with Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Students with Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments 7 Planning and Grouping Strategies for Special Learners Model of the Planning Process Long-Term Planning Unit Planning Lesson Planning An Overview of Instructional Grouping Grouping Patterns 8 Managing Student Behavior Basic Principles of Managing Student Behavior Establishing the Classroom Climate Practices for Providing Positive Behavioral Support Enhancing Students' Self-Concepts Teaching Social and Self-Management Skills 9 Collaborating and Coordinating with Other Professionals and Family Members Consultation and Collaboration Cooperative Teaching Critical Communication Skills Working with Parents 10 Teaching Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students Diversity in Classrooms and Schools Multicultural Education Linguistic Diversity and Second Language Acquisition Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students 11 Accommodating for Other Special Needs: Students At Risk and Students with Special Talents Defining Students At Risk Conditions That Place Students At Risk Prevalence of Students At Risk Identifying Students At Risk Programs for Students At Risk Defining Giftedness Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Prevalence of Giftedness Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Programs for Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Instructional Guidelines and Accommodations 12 Teaching All Students to Succeed in Reading Current Trends in Reading Programs Effective Reading Instruction for Struggling Readers Strategies for Helping All Students with Phonological Awareness, Letter-Sound Correspondence, and the Alphabet Principle Strategies for Teaching Word Identification Strategies for Helping All Students Develop Fluency Strategies for Helping All Students Improve Reading Comprehension 13 Teaching All Students to Succeed in Writing Current Trends in Writing Curriculum and Instruction Teaching Writing as a Process Strategies for Establishing an Environment That Promotes Writing Strategies for Conducting a Writing Workshop Strategies for Teaching Narrative Writing Strategies for Teaching Expository Writing Strategies for Helping All Students Acquire Spelling Skills Strategies for Helping All Students Develop Handwriting Skills 14 Teaching All Students to Succeed in Mathematics Current Trends in Mathematics Curriculum and Instruction Difficulties in Learning Mathematics Effective Math Instruction for All Learners Strategies for Helping All Students Acquire Basic Math Skills Strategies for Helping All Learners Acquire and Use Computation Skills Strategies for Helping All Students Develop Problem Solving Skills 15 Teaching All Students to Succeed in the Content Areas Critical Issues in Content Area Instruction Learning Difficulties in the Content Areas Effective Content Area Instruction for All Learners Effective Content Area Reading Instruction for All Learners Effective Content Area Assignments, Homework, and Tests for All Learners Planning Interdisciplinary Thematic Units Glossary Index

Teaching exceptional, diverse, and at-risk students in the general education classroom

Social outcomes of students who participated in two different educational settings designed to provide special services for students with learning disabilities (LD) placed full-time within the general education classroom were examined. Participants were 185 third-through sixth-grade students: 59 students with LD, 72 low to average achieving, and 54 high achieving. There was an overall educational setting effect, with students on the consultation/collaborative teaching setting demonstrating more positive outcomes than students in the co-teaching setting on friendship quality and peer acceptance. Students with LD in the consultation/collaborative teaching setting also demonstrated moderate increases in the number of reciprocal friendships from fall to spring. Discussion addresses the positive social outcomes for students with LD and high-achieving students in the consultation/collaborative teaching setting, and the importance of monitoring student progress in all settings.

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Jeanne Shay Schumm

Papers

Focus Group Interviews in Education and Psychology

Observations of Students with Learning Disabilities in General Education Classrooms

Making Adaptations for Mainstreamed Students: General Classroom Teachers' Perspectives

Teaching exceptional, diverse, and at-risk students in the general education classroom

Social Outcomes for Students With and Without Learning Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms