抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

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Using Multivariate Statistics

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

So far in this course we have dealt entirely with the evolution of characters that are controlled by simple Mendelian inheritance at a single locus. There are notes on the course website about gametic disequilibrium and how allele frequencies change at two loci simultaneously, but we didn’t discuss them. In every example we’ve considered we’ve imagined that we could understand something about evolution by examining the evolution of a single gene. That’s the domain of classical population genetics. For the next few weeks we’re going to be exploring a field that’s actually older than classical population genetics, although the approach we’ll be taking to it involves the use of population genetic machinery. If you know a little about the history of evolutionary biology, you may know that after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 there was a heated debate between the “biometricians” (e.g., Galton and Pearson) and the “Mendelians” (e.g., de Vries, Correns, Bateson, and Morgan). Biometricians asserted that the really important variation in evolution didn’t follow Mendelian rules. Height, weight, skin color, and similar traits seemed to

Human biochemical genetics

Predation has long been implicated as a major selective force in the evolution of several morphological and behavioral characteristics of animals. The importance of predation during evolutionary ti...

Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus

Natural selection is an immense and important subject, yet there have been few attempts to summarize its effects on natural populations, and fewer still which discuss the problems of working with natural selection in the wild. These are the purposes of John Endler's book. In it, he discusses the methods and problems involved in the demonstration and measurement of natural selection, presents the critical evidence for its existence, and places it in an evolutionary perspective. Professor Endler finds that there are a remarkable number of direct demonstrations of selection in a wide variety of animals and plants. The distribution of observed magnitudes of selection in natural populations is surprisingly broad, and it overlaps extensively the range of values found in artificial selection. He argues that the common assumption that selection is usually weak in natural populations is no longer tenable, but that natural selection is only one component of the process of evolution; natural selection can explain the change of frequencies of variants, but not their origins.

Natural selection in the wild

Geographic Variation, Speciation and Clines explores the origins and development of geographic variation, divergence, and speciation. In particular it is concerned with genetic divergence as it is usually found on continents, among groups of populations isolated only by distance. Although earlier writers on this topic considered the effects of geography and dispersal, intense geographic differentiation and speciation were thought to require complete isolation. Professor Endler shows how geographic differentiation and speciation may develop in spite of continuous gene flow. Following a review of the diverse and scattered literature on gene flow and population differentiation, the author discusses the relationships among gene flow, dispersal, and migration. He then summarizes the factors which limit the geographic extent of gene flow, and those which allow steep clines to develop in the absence of barriers to gene flow. His analysis draws on examples from the field, experiments, and single- and multiple-locus models. The mechanism and conditions for parapatric speciation are presented: steepening clines, development into hybrid zones, and the evolution of sexual isolation. In the final chapter the author considers the interpretation of natural clines and the associated geographic patterns of subspecies and species.

Geographic variation, speciation, and clines

There is a bewildering diversity of signals, sensory systems, and signaling behavior. A consideration of how these traits affect each other's evolution explains some of this diversity. Natural selection favors signals, receptors, and signaling behavior that maximize the received signals relative to background noise and minimize signal degradation. Properties of sensory systems bias the direction of evolution of the signals that they receive. For example, females may prefer males whose signals they can perceive more easily, and this will lead to the spread of more easily perceived male traits. Environmental conditions during signal transmission and detection also affect signal perception. Specific environmental conditions will bias the evolutionary direction of behavior, which affects the time and place of signaling as well as microhabitat preferences. Increased specialization of microhabitats and signaling behavior may lead to biased evolution of the sensory systems to work more efficiently. Thus, sensory...

/pdf/signals-signal-conditions-and-the-direction-of-evolution-1s36taz7km.pdf

Signals, signal conditions, and the direction of evolution

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Geographic Variation, Speciation, and Clines.

All too often in evolutionary biology we are led to speculate or infer the mode of action of natural selection; we usually do not know why some individuals are more adaptive than others. Very often attempts to measure natural selection are unsuccessful, leading to heated arguments about' the relative importance of selection, genetic drift, and epistasis in evolution (Lewontin, 1974). Until we know more about how and why natural selection occurs, attempts to measure it are quixotic, and discussions of its importance are theandric. It is no coincidence that most of the successful studies of natural selection have dealt with animal color patterns; it should be obvious which color patterns are more adaptive in the presence of visually hunting predators. The adaptive significance of warning coloration and mimicry of distasteful species has been worked out (Cott, 1940; Wickler, 1968; Edmunds, 1974; Rothschild, 1975; Turner, 1977). But most species are neither distasteful nor mimetic; most have inconspicuous or cryptic color patterns in their natural habitats (Poulton, 1890; Thayer, 1909; Cott, 1940; Endler, 1978). Most field and experimental studies have shown that the overall color or tone of inconspicuous species matches or approximates the background (DiCesnola, 1904; Sumner, 1934, 1935; Isley, 1938; Popham, 1942; Dice, 1947; Kettlewell, 1956, 1973; Turner, 1961; Kaufman, 1974; Wicklund, 1975; Curio, 1976), but they treated species with solid colors or

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1980.tb04790.x

John A. Endler

Papers

Natural selection in the wild

Geographic variation, speciation, and clines

Signals, signal conditions, and the direction of evolution

Geographic Variation, Speciation, and Clines.

Natural selection on color patterns in poecilia reticulata.