抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

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Using Multivariate Statistics

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

So far in this course we have dealt entirely with the evolution of characters that are controlled by simple Mendelian inheritance at a single locus. There are notes on the course website about gametic disequilibrium and how allele frequencies change at two loci simultaneously, but we didn’t discuss them. In every example we’ve considered we’ve imagined that we could understand something about evolution by examining the evolution of a single gene. That’s the domain of classical population genetics. For the next few weeks we’re going to be exploring a field that’s actually older than classical population genetics, although the approach we’ll be taking to it involves the use of population genetic machinery. If you know a little about the history of evolutionary biology, you may know that after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 there was a heated debate between the “biometricians” (e.g., Galton and Pearson) and the “Mendelians” (e.g., de Vries, Correns, Bateson, and Morgan). Biometricians asserted that the really important variation in evolution didn’t follow Mendelian rules. Height, weight, skin color, and similar traits seemed to

Human biochemical genetics

Predation has long been implicated as a major selective force in the evolution of several morphological and behavioral characteristics of animals. The importance of predation during evolutionary ti...

Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus

In studies of animal colouration it is no longer necessary to rely on subjective assessments of colour and conspicuousness, nor on methods which rely upon human vision. This is important because animals vary greatly in colour vision and colour is context-dependent. New methods make it practical to measure the colour spectrum of pattern elements (patches) of animals and their visual backgrounds for the conditions under which patch spectra reach the conspecific's, predator's or prey's eyes. These methods can be used in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. A patch's colour is dependent not only upon its reflectance spectrum, but also upon the ambient light spectrum, the transmission properties of air or water, and the veiling light spectrum. These factors change with time of day, weather, season and microhabitat, so colours must be measured under the conditions prevalent when colour patterns are normally used. Methods of measuring, classifying and comparing colours are presented, as well as techniques for assessing the conspicuousness of colour patterns as a whole. Some implications of the effect of environmental light and vision are also discussed.

On the measurement and classification of colour in studies of animal colour patterns

Forests exhibit much variation in light environments, and this can affect communication among animals, communication between animals and plants, photosynthesis, and plant morphogenesis. Light environments are caused by, and can be predicted from, the geometry of the light paths, the weather conditions, and the time of day. The structure of forests leads to four major light habitats when the sun is not blocked by clouds: forest shade, woodland shade, small gaps, and large gaps. These are characterized by yellow—green, blue—gray, reddish, and "white" ambient light spectra, respectively. When the sun is blocked by clouds, the spectra of these four habitats converge on that of large gaps and open areas, so the single light environment during cloudy weather will be called open/cloudy. An additional light environment (early/late) is associated with low sun angles (near dawn or dusk); it is purplish. Each light environment is well defined and was found in forests of Trinidad, Panama, Costa Rica, Australia, California, and Florida. Scattered literature references suggest similar patterns elsewhere in North America, Europe, and Java. Perceived colors of animals, flowers, and fruits depend upon the interaction between ambient light color and the reflectance color of the animal or plant parts. As a result, an animal or plant may have a different appearance in each environment, i.e., a color pattern may be relatively cryptic in some light environments while relatively conspicuous in others. This has strong implications for the joint evolution of visual signals and vision, as well as microhabitat choice. Plant growth and form may also be affected by variation in the color of forest light.

The Color of Light in Forests and Its Implications

LIFE-HISTORY theory predicts that reduced adult survival will select for earlier maturation and increased reproductive effort; conversely, reduced juvenile survival will select the opposite1#150;5. This is supported by laboratory studies6–10 and comparative data from natural populations11–15. Laboratory studies may support a theory, but cannot assess its importance in natural populations, and comparative studies reveal correlations, not causation16. Long-term perturbation experiments on natural populations resolve both problems. Here we report the findings of a long-term study of guppies (Poecilia reticulata), in which the predictions of life-history theory are supported. Life-history differences among populations of guppies are closely associated with predator species with which guppies live13,17–21. The predators apparently alter age-specific survival because they are size-specific in their choice of prey21–23. Crenicichla alta (a cichlid), the main predator at one class of localities, preys predominantly on large, sexually mature size classes of guppies22–24. Rivulus hartii(a killifish), the main predator at another class of localities, preys predominantly on small, immature size classes. Guppies from localities with Crenicichla mature at an earlier age, have higher reproductive effort, and have more and smaller offspring per brood than those from localities with just Rivulus. These differences are heritable, and correspond with theoretical predictions17–19. To prove that predation caused this pattern, we perturbed a natural population of guppies by changing predation against adults to predation against juveniles. This resulted in significant life-history evolution in the predicted direction after 11 years, or 30–60 generations.

Experimentally induced life-history evolution in a natural population

It has long been known that the general colors and tones of animals tend to match their backgrounds (E. Darwin, 1794; Poulton, 1890). The adaptive significance of this has been borne out in numerous experimental studies (DiCesnola, 1904; Sumner, 1934, 1935; Isley, 1938; Popham, 1942; Dice, 1947; Turner, 1961; Kettlewell, 1956, 1973; Kaufman, 1974; Wiklund, 1975; Curio, 1976). There is also a good understanding of warning coloration (Cott, 1940; Wickler, 1968; Edmunds, 1974; Rothschild, 1975). However, the determinants of color pattern are poorly known, although it is known in a general way that the patterns and forms of animals are similar to their backgrounds (Poulton, 1890; Thayer, 1909; Cott, 1940; Wickler, 1968; Robinson, 1969; Edmunds, 1974; Fogden and Fogden, 1974). It is the purpose of this paper to explore the factors that determine color patterns under various specific conditions. The basic assumption is that a color pattern must resemble a random sample of the background seen by predators in order to be cryptic, and must deviate from the background in one or more ways in order to be conspicuous. As a result, the actual pattern evolved in a particular place represents a compromise between factors which favor crypsis and those which favor conspicuous color patterns.

A Predator’s View of Animal Color Patterns

Speciation is a subject of great interest because it represents both the formation of units of evolution and the connection between microevolution and macroevolution. The purpose of this book is to illustrate how different patterns of speciation and differentiation have occurred among diverse taxa.

John A. Endler

Papers

On the measurement and classification of colour in studies of animal colour patterns

The Color of Light in Forests and Its Implications

Experimentally induced life-history evolution in a natural population

A Predator’s View of Animal Color Patterns

Speciation and Its Consequences