A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

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Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.

Men and Women of the Corporation

A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female leaders were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness.

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Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men

There is a growing call for greater public involvement in establishing science and technology policy, in line with democratic ideals. A variety of public participation procedures exist that aim to consult and involve the public, ranging from the public hearing to the consensus conference. Unfortunately, a general lack of empirical consideration of the quality of these methods arises from confusion as to the appropriate benchmarks for evaluation. Given that the quality of the output of any participation exercise is difficult to determine, the authors suggest the need to consider which aspects of the process are desirable and then to measure the presence or quality of these process aspects. To this end, a number of theoretical evaluation criteria that are essential for effective public participation are specified. These comprise two types: acceptance criteria, which concern features of a method that make it acceptable to the wider public, and process criteria, which concern features of the process that are ...

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Public Participation Methods: A Framework for Evaluation:

This paper develops theory about the conditions under which cultural diversity enhances or detracts from work group functioning. From qualitative research in three culturally diverse organizations, we identified three different perspectives on workforce diversity: the integration-and-learning perspective, the access-and-legitimacy perspective, and the discrimination-and-fairness perspective. The perspective on diversity a work group held influenced how people expressed and managed tensions related to diversity, whether those who had been traditionally underrepresented in the organization felt respected and valued by their colleagues, and how people interpreted the meaning of their racial identity at work. These, in turn, had implications for how well the work group and its members functioned. All three perspectives on diversity had been successful in motivating managers to diversify their staffs, but only the integration-and-learning perspective provided the rationale and guidance needed to achieve sustai...

http://web.mit.edu/cortiz/www/Diversity/Ely%20and%20Thomas,%202001.pdf

Cultural Diversity at Work: The Effects of Diversity Perspectives on Work Group Processes and Outcomes

While Mary Hartman helped us see the importance of continually rethinking our response to the issues that women face, Judy Rosener frames the problems and opportunities that women encounter in organizations in a very specific way. Her response is one that emphasizes the unique contributions that women leaders make within organizations. In her now classic article on women leaders we find a demonstration that a transformative collaborative model of leading is both more typical of women leaders and actually very effective, particularly in large organizations. As the book progresses, we shall see that the strategy of emphasizing women leaders’ “unique” leadership style also has its dangers, as it tends to strengthen gender stereotypes. We however include this perspective here because we want to trace the various possible responses to the changing situation of women within organizations, and consider its costs and benefits before offering new perspectives. Rosener’s article does offer us some crucial insights into alternative leadership models that may be more appropriate responses to contemporary organizational dynamics. Although Rosener barely touches on it, a transformational leader is more comfortable in a complex environment of a large multinational corporation, and that style of leadership, in turn, is more conducive to leadership success in global companies.

Ways Women Lead

This best seller shows how to recognize and rectify problems that can inhibit the full participation of a diverse workforce and create an environment that capitalizes on the creativity and richness that increased diversity offers.

Workforce America!: Managing Employee Diversity as a Vital Resource

The United States has a large number of well educated, experienced professional women ready, willing and able to move into the boardrooms and executive suites of corporate America. Together they represent a great, untapped economic resource, a resource no other country in the world can claim. This is America's competitive secret, argues Judy B. Rosener in this refreshingly pragmatic new book for managers who want to improve their bottom line. A leading expert on women and men at work and a highly sought-after speaker, Rosener argues that not only are men and women different, so are male and female managers. Drawing on in-depth interviews with top-flight executives and middle managers and the latest research on working women and organizational change, she describes the unique contribution of female professionals. Her profiles of top women managers reveal that they cope well with ambiguity, are comfortable sharing power, and they tend to empower others-- leadership traits that Rosener contends lead to increased employee productivity, innovation, and profits. As businesses today struggle with corporate reorganization and an increasingly diverse workforce, America's Competive Secret offers compelling evidence that the changes that help organizatiions more fully utilize the talents of women are the same changes that will give them an important edge in today's fast-changing, service oriented, global workplace. Rosener explains why the so-called glass ceiling still prevents many competent women from reaching the upper echelons of management. She analyzes why women and men are perceived and evaluated differently at work, and provides new insight into the feelings of men who are asked to interact with women in new roles when there are few new rules. Rosener shows that removing the glass ceiling can no longer be viewed solely in terms of social equity--it is now an economic imperative. Too many American businesses have limited their economic strength by viewing the promotion of women employees only within the context of federally mandated affirmative action laws and policies. America's Competitive Secret redefines the issue for a new era, showing that America's most successful competitive strategy is one that most effectively utilizes all its human resources.

America's Competitive Secret: Utilizing Women as a Management Strategy

6. Morris and Hughes have moved onto other pursuits as of this writing. Havens' original assignment was to the Office of Program and Budget Analysis, and Canfield's original assignment was to the Office of Special Programs. Both of these offices were redesignated as line divisions in 1976 under the names cited in the text. 7. This is based on the author's analysis of 100 "Timeframe For Successive Performance Steps" reports, 1973-1975. 8. Martin J. Fitzgerald, "The Expanded Role of the General Accounting Office," The Bureaucrat, III (January, 1975), p. 393. 9. Comptroller General, Memorandum from Jack L. Green (for Clerio P. Pin, Director, MS) to Heads of Divisions and Offices, "Analysis of Job History Records," December 23, 1975. 10. Congressional Record, CXIII (1967) p. 27379. 81 Stat. 672. 11. U.S. Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Capability of the GAO to Analyze and Audit Defense Expenditures, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization, 91st Con., 1st sess. (1969). Senate Report 91-1264, p. 18. 12. Congressional Record, XCII (1946), p. 6397. 13. Congressional Record, XCIII (1947), p. 7175. See also U.S., House of Representatives, Committee on Appropriations, Independent Offices Appropriations Bill for 1948, Hearings before a Subcommittee, 80th Cong., 1st sess. (1947), p. 22 and passim. 14. U.S., House of Representatives Report 91-487, p. 31. 15. U.S., House of Representatives, Select Committee on Committees, Committee Organization in the House, Panel Discussions, 93rd Cong., 1st sess. (1973), Vol. II, part I, pp. 25859. 16. U.S., Senate, Committee on Government Operations Capability of the GAO, pp. 165-66. 17. U.S., Senate, Committee on Appropriations, Legislative Branch Appropriations, Hearings before a Subcommittee, 94th Cong., 1st sess. (1975), pp. 863-99. 18. Comptroller General, Summary of Open GAO Recommendations for Legislative Action, a Report to Congress (OCR76-1001), April 20, 1976. 19. Since the initial drafting of this article two related trends are of note. . . One is the criticism that Alice Rivlin, CBO head, has come under from segments of Congress based on her office's alleged policy advocacy. Second, Congress' interest in zero-base budgeting and sunset legislation has opened new potential for GAO activity in its expanded role. See the author's "Zero-Base Budgeting and the United States General Accounting Office," International Journal of Government Auditing (October, 1977).

Judy B. Rosener

Papers

Ways Women Lead

Workforce America!: Managing Employee Diversity as a Vital Resource

America's Competitive Secret: Utilizing Women as a Management Strategy

Citizen Participation: Can We Measure Its Effectiveness?

The Progressive City@@@The Progressive City: Planning and Participation, 1969-1984