Since the first application of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon for sensing almost two decades ago, this method has made great strides both in terms of instrumentation development and applications. SPR sensor technology has been commercialized and SPR biosensors have become a central tool for characterizing and quantifying biomolecular interactions. This paper attempts to review the major developments in SPR technology. Main application areas are outlined and examples of applications of SPR sensor technology are presented. Future prospects of SPR sensor technology are discussed.

Surface plasmon resonance sensors: review

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Principles Of Fluorescence Spectroscopy

Over 7,000 peer reviewed articles have been published on electrochemical glucose assays and sensors over recent years. Their number makes a full review of the literature, or even of the most recent advances, impossible. Nevertheless, this chapter should acquaint the reader with the fundamentals of the electrochemistry of glucose and provide a perspective of the evolution of the electrochemical glucose assays and monitors helping diabetic people, who constitute about 5 % of the world’s population. Because of the large number of diabetic people, no assay is performed more frequently than that of glucose. Most of these assays are electrochemical. The reader interested also in nonelectrochemical assays used in, or proposed for, the management of diabetes is referred to a 2007 excellent review of Kondepati and Heise [1].

Electrochemical glucose sensors and their applications in diabetes management.

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Art of electronics

Quartz crystal microbalance: a useful tool for studying thin polymer films and complex biomolecular systems at the solution-surface interface.

The ElectroMechanical Film (EMFi) is a thin, cellular, biaxially oriented polypropylene film that can be used as an electret. Having a special voided internal structure and high resistivity, it is capable of storing large permanent charge. The charge is injected by a corona method using ∼10 kV cm−1 fields, thus creating internal electrical discharges inside the cellular structure. Films of different thickness and elasticity can be manufactured. The thickness in sensor and actuator applications is typically 30–70 μm. When metallized on both sides, EMFi is capable of measuring pressure and force changes offering large application potential in different fields of technology including microphones and also actuators. New loudspeaker panels based on EMFi are only a few millimeters thick.

ElectroMechanical Film (EMFi) — a new multipurpose electret material

Charged closed-cell microporous polypropylene foams are shown to exhibit piezoelectric resonance modes in the dielectric function, coupled with a large anisotropy in the electromechanical and elastic material properties. Strong direct and converse dynamic piezoelectricity with a piezoelectric d33 coefficient of 140 pC/N at 600 kHz is identified. The piezoelectric d33 coefficient exceeds that of the ferroelectric polymer polyvinylidene fluoride by a factor of 5 and compares favorably with ferroelectric ceramics. Applications of similar concepts should provide a broad class of easily fabricated “soft” piezoelectric materials.

Large and broadband piezoelectricity in smart polymer-foam space-charge electrets

Charged closed-cell polypropylene polymer foams are highly sensitive and broadband piezoelectric materials with a quasistatic piezoelectric d33 coefficient about 250 pC/N and a dynamic d33 coefficient of 140 pC/N at 600 kHz. The piezoelectric coefficient is much larger than that of ferroelectric polymers, like polyvinylidene fluoride, and compares favorably with ferroelectric ceramics, such as lead zirconate titanate. The pyroelectric coefficient p3=0.25 μC/m2 K is small in comparison to ferroelectric polymers and ferroelectric ceramics. The low density, small pyroelectric coefficient and high piezoelectric sensitivity make charged polymer foams attractive for a wide range of sensor and transducer applications in acoustics, air-borne ultrasound, medical diagnostics, and nondestructive testing.

Piezo- and pyroelectricity of a polymer-foam space-charge electret

Modelling the electromechanical film (EMFi)

An electromechanical film can be manufactured with different thickness and elasticity. The thickness for sensor and actuator applications is typically between 30 and 70 /spl mu/m. The film is modeled using a simplified structure, which shows the reciprocity of the sensor and actuator operation models. The value of the transducer constant depends on the ambient temperature and increases at higher temperatures. During aging the transducer constant begins to decrease permanently at 323 K, but some sensitivity remains even at 333 K. Corona charging that gives a sensitivity value /spl sim/200 pCN/sup -1/ for HS01 type film is preferred over electron beam charging. The development of such films is aimed at sensor and actuator applications. An interesting field is the active control of sound where flat and efficient microphones and loudspeakers are needed.

Jukka Lekkala

Papers

ElectroMechanical Film (EMFi) — a new multipurpose electret material

Large and broadband piezoelectricity in smart polymer-foam space-charge electrets

Piezo- and pyroelectricity of a polymer-foam space-charge electret

Modelling the electromechanical film (EMFi)

Electromechanical modeling and properties of the electret film EMFI