https://www.hse.ru/data/816/479/1225/Oct%2019%20Cited%20%231%20Manage%20THE%20THEORY%20OF%20PLANNED%20BEHAVIOR.pdf

The theory of planned behavior

The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived selfefficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.

Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

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The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

Relationship marketing—establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges—constitutes a major shift in marketing theory and practice. After conceptualizing relationship marke...

The Commitment-Trust Theory of Relationship Marketing

One of the most salient factors m the effecdveness of our present complex social organization is the willmgness of one or more mdividuals m a social unit to trust others The efficiency, adjustment, and even survival of any social group depends upon the presence or absence of such trust. Interpersonal tmst is defined here as an expectancy held by an mdividual or a group that the word, promise, verbal or wntten statement of another individual or group can be relied upon. This definition clearly departs significandy from Enkson's (1953) broad use of the concept of basic trust which Enkson descnbes as a central ingredient m \"the healthy personality \" Vanous wnters have already mdicated that a high expectancy that others can be relied upon is an important variable in the development of adequate family relationships and of healthy personahties in children The fadure to tmst others, particularly representatives of society, such as parents, teachers, and powerful commumty leaders, has frequently been cited as an important determmant m delmquency (Redl & Wmeman, 1951) Difficuldes m race relationships and m mmonty group-majonty group relationships have, likewise, been frequently related to expectancies of one group that the verbal statements of the other cannot be accepted Many psychotherapists believe interpersonal tmst is a major determinant in the success of psychotherapy In fact, an expectancy that others can be believed must be an important variable m human learmng in general Much of the formal and informal leaming that human bemgs acquire is based on the verbal and wntten statements of others, and what they leam must be significandy affected by the degree to which they believe their informants without independent evidence.

A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust.

Social learning and clinical psychology

Research involving perceived internal versus external control of reinforcement as a personality variable has been expanding at a rapid rate. It seems clear that for some investigators there are problems associated with understanding the conceptualization of this construct as well as understanding the nature and limitations of methods of measurement. This article attempts to discuss in detail (a) the place of this construct within the framework of social learning theory, (b) misconceptions and problems of a theoretical nature, and (c) misuses and limitations associated with measurement. Problems of generalityspecificity and unidimensionality-multidimensionality are discussed as well as the logic of predictions from test scores. Estimates of the number of published articles dealing with some aspect of internal versus external control of reinforcement (sometimes referred to as "locus of control") vary, but it is clear that there are well over 600 studies. The number of unpublished investigations, master's theses, and doctoral dissertations dealing with this topic are impossible to estimate. Most of these studies have been published in the last IS years, and there seems to be still an active, if not increasing, interest in the topic. The concept deals both with situational parameters and individual differences, although the bulk of the studies have been concerned with the latter. One can only speculate on the surprising popularity of this concept as a subject for psychological investigations. Interest in this concept surely must be related to some persistent social problems, which in turn are related to the tremendous growth in population, increasing complexity of society, and the subsequent feeling of powerlessness that seems to permeate all levels of society, at least in Western culture. The research referred to above has produced some important and some well-replicated findings. It has also produced a series of studies that appear to reflect a basic misunderstanding of the nature of the variables and measurement devices used to assess individual differences. It is Requests for reprints should be sent to Julian B. Rotter, Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268.

Julian B. Rotter

Papers

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust.

Social learning and clinical psychology

Some Problems and Misconceptions Related to the Construct of Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement

Interpersonal Trust, Trustworthiness, and Gullibility.