https://www.sfu.ca/~wainwrig/Econ400/jensen-meckling.pdf

Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure

This paper presents a critique of expected utility theory as a descriptive model of decision making under risk, and develops an alternative model, called prospect theory. Choices among risky prospects exhibit several pervasive effects that are inconsistent with the basic tenets of utility theory. In particular, people underweight outcomes that are merely probable in comparison with outcomes that are obtained with certainty. This tendency, called the certainty effect, contributes to risk aversion in choices involving sure gains and to risk seeking in choices involving sure losses. In addition, people generally discard components that are shared by all prospects under consideration. This tendency, called the isolation effect, leads to inconsistent preferences when the same choice is presented in different forms. An alternative theory of choice is developed, in which value is assigned to gains and losses rather than to final assets and in which probabilities are replaced by decision weights. The value function is normally concave for gains, commonly convex for losses, and is generally steeper for losses than for gains. Decision weights are generally lower than the corresponding probabilities, except in the range of low prob- abilities. Overweighting of low probabilities may contribute to the attractiveness of both insurance and gambling. EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY has dominated the analysis of decision making under risk. It has been generally accepted as a normative model of rational choice (24), and widely applied as a descriptive model of economic behavior, e.g. (15, 4). Thus, it is assumed that all reasonable people would wish to obey the axioms of the theory (47, 36), and that most people actually do, most of the time. The present paper describes several classes of choice problems in which preferences systematically violate the axioms of expected utility theory. In the light of these observations we argue that utility theory, as it is commonly interpreted and applied, is not an adequate descriptive model and we propose an alternative account of choice under risk. 2. CRITIQUE

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Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk

In this paper, we argue that the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends is critical to its innovative capabilities. We label this capability a firm's absorptive capacity and suggest that it is largely a function of the firm's level of prior related knowledge. The discussion focuses first on the cognitive basis for an individual's absorptive capacity including, in particular, prior related knowledge and diversity of background. We then characterize the factors that influence absorptive capacity at the organizational level, how an organization's absorptive capacity differs from that of its individual members, and the role of diversity of expertise within an organization. We argue that the development of absorptive capacity, and, in turn, innovative performance are history- or path-dependent and argue how lack of investment in an area of expertise early on may foreclose the future development of a technical capability in that area. We formulate a model of firm investment in research and development (R&D), in which R&D contributes to a firm's absorptive capacity, and test predictions relating a firm's investment in R&D to the knowledge underlying technical change within an industry. Discussion focuses on the implications of absorptive capacity for the analysis of other related innovative activities, including basic research, the adoption and diffusion of innovations, and decisions to participate in cooperative R&D ventures. **

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Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on learning and innovation

The dynamic capabilities framework analyzes the sources and methods of wealth creation and capture by private enterprise firms operating in environments of rapid technological change. The competitive advantage of firms is seen as resting on distinctive processes (ways of coordinating and combining), shaped by the firm's (specific) asset positions (such as the firm's portfolio of difftcult-to- trade knowledge assets and complementary assets), and the evolution path(s) it has aflopted or inherited. The importance of path dependencies is amplified where conditions of increasing retums exist. Whether and how a firm's competitive advantage is eroded depends on the stability of market demand, and the ease of replicability (expanding intemally) and imitatability (replication by competitors). If correct, the framework suggests that private wealth creation in regimes of rapid technological change depends in large measure on honing intemal technological, organizational, and managerial processes inside the firm. In short, identifying new opportunities and organizing effectively and efficiently to embrace them are generally more fundamental to private wealth creation than is strategizing, if by strategizing one means engaging in business conduct that keeps competitors off balance, raises rival's costs, and excludes new entrants. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

/pdf/dynamic-capabilities-and-strategic-management-4iyi34iyh6.pdf

Dynamic capabilities and strategic management

Measuring the efficiency of decision making units

Medical care in the United States has been and in many ways still is directed by the free play of the market. Individual patients use their incomes as they choose to buy medical services; physicians derive their incomes from these fees and freely decide how much medical services to offer, how to specialize, and where to locate. These decisions may be made for all sorts of reasons, but certainly income is not irrelevant. Such a system for the allocation of medical resources has been largely abandoned in most other leading countries and is undergoing progressive modification in the United States. The state and local governments have always intervened to some extent in providing medical services to the poor; the spread of medical insurance, even though nominally private, has sensibly modified the earlier financial arrangements and motivations; and more recently the Federal government has intervened massively to finance medical services to the aged and to greatly increase those for the poor. Now it is clear that the country is on the way to some form of national health insurance. The only question is what form it will take. We may expect several years of vigorous debate among the contesting proposals emanating from all sides. But when a Republican administration comes forth to urge a definite permanent role for the Federal government in the provision of medical care to the entire population, the issue of principle has been resolved.

Problems of resource allocation in United States medical care.

The Cost and Cost-Effectiveness of Antimalarial Drugs

Análisis general competitivo

Chapter Thirteen - Kenneth Arrow on Social Choice Theory

Where the theorist can be helpful is in sorting out the logical coherence of different kinds of assumptions. Typically, economic theory states the resource and technological limitations constraining the economy as a whole and individual agents within the economy, and postulates that the agents act rationally within these constraints. The constraints on individual agents derive in part from the constraints of the economy as a whole but in even greater measure from the very actions of other agents. The prices which an individual agent faces in his or her decisions are determined in one way or another by the aggregate choices of all the other agents.

Kenneth J. Arrow

Papers

Problems of resource allocation in United States medical care.

The Cost and Cost-Effectiveness of Antimalarial Drugs

Análisis general competitivo

Chapter Thirteen - Kenneth Arrow on Social Choice Theory

Returns to Scale, Information and Economic Growth