Khaoula Belhaj

Bio: Khaoula Belhaj is an academic researcher from Norwich Research Park. The author has contributed to research in topics: Phytophthora infestans & Oomycete. The author has an hindex of 12, co-authored 19 publications receiving 1921 citations. Previous affiliations of Khaoula Belhaj include Sainsbury Laboratory.

Plant genome editing made easy: targeted mutagenesis in model and crop plants using the CRISPR/Cas system

Abstract: Targeted genome engineering (also known as genome editing) has emerged as an alternative to classical plant breeding and transgenic (GMO) methods to improve crop plants. Until recently, available tools for introducing site-specific double strand DNA breaks were restricted to zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) and TAL effector nucleases (TALENs). However, these technologies have not been widely adopted by the plant research community due to complicated design and laborious assembly of specific DNA binding proteins for each target gene. Recently, an easier method has emerged based on the bacterial type II CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)/Cas (CRISPR-associated) immune system. The CRISPR/Cas system allows targeted cleavage of genomic DNA guided by a customizable small noncoding RNA, resulting in gene modifications by both non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homology-directed repair (HDR) mechanisms. In this review we summarize and discuss recent applications of the CRISPR/Cas technology in plants.

Effector biology of plant-associated organisms:concepts and perspectives

Abstract: Every plant is closely associated with a variety of living organisms. Therefore, deciphering how plants interact with mutualistic and parasitic organisms is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the biology of plants. The field of plant-biotic interactions has recently coalesced around an integrated model. Major classes of molecular players both from plants and their associated organisms have been revealed. These include cell surface and intracellular immune receptors of plants as well as apoplastic and host-cell-translocated (cytoplasmic) effectors of the invading organism. This article focuses on effectors, molecules secreted by plant-associated organisms that alter plant processes. Effectors have emerged as a central class of molecules in our integrated view of plant-microbe interactions. Their study has significantly contributed to advancing our knowledge of plant hormones, plant development, plant receptors, and epigenetics. Many pathogen effectors are extraordinary examples of biological innovation; they include some of the most remarkable proteins known to function inside plant cells. Here, we review some of the key concepts that have emerged from the study of the effectors of plant-associated organisms. In particular, we focus on how effectors function in plant tissues and discuss future perspectives in the field of effector biology.

NLR network mediates immunity to diverse plant pathogens.

Abstract: Both plants and animals rely on nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) proteins to respond to invading pathogens and activate immune responses. An emerging concept of NLR function is that “sensor” NLR proteins are paired with “helper” NLRs to mediate immune signaling. However, our fundamental knowledge of sensor/helper NLRs in plants remains limited. In this study, we discovered a complex NLR immune network in which helper NLRs in the NRC (NLR required for cell death) family are functionally redundant but display distinct specificities toward different sensor NLRs that confer immunity to oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and insects. The helper NLR NRC4 is required for the function of several sensor NLRs, including Rpi-blb2, Mi-1.2, and R1, whereas NRC2 and NRC3 are required for the function of the sensor NLR Prf. Interestingly, NRC2, NRC3, and NRC4 redundantly contribute to the immunity mediated by other sensor NLRs, including Rx, Bs2, R8, and Sw5. NRC family and NRC-dependent NLRs are phylogenetically related and cluster into a well-supported superclade. Using extensive phylogenetic analysis, we discovered that the NRC superclade probably emerged over 100 Mya from an NLR pair that diversified to constitute up to one-half of the NLRs of asterids. These findings reveal a complex genetic network of NLRs and point to a link between evolutionary history and the mechanism of immune signaling. We propose that this NLR network increases the robustness of immune signaling to counteract rapidly evolving plant pathogens.

CRISPR Crops: Plant Genome Editing Toward Disease Resistance.

Abstract: Genome editing by sequence-specific nucleases (SSNs) has revolutionized biology by enabling targeted modifications of genomes. Although routine plant genome editing emerged only a few years ago, we are already witnessing the first applications to improve disease resistance. In particular, CRISPR-Cas9 has democratized the use of genome editing in plants thanks to the ease and robustness of this method. Here, we review the recent developments in plant genome editing and its application to enhancing disease resistance against plant pathogens. In the future, bioedited disease resistant crops will become a standard tool in plant breeding.

A CRISPR/Cas9 toolkit for multiplex genome editing in plants

Abstract: To accelerate the application of the CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/ CRISPR-associated protein 9) system to a variety of plant species, a toolkit with additional plant selectable markers, more gRNA modules, and easier methods for the assembly of one or more gRNA expression cassettes is required. We developed a CRISPR/Cas9 binary vector set based on the pGreen or pCAMBIA backbone, as well as a gRNA (guide RNA) module vector set, as a toolkit for multiplex genome editing in plants. This toolkit requires no restriction enzymes besides BsaI to generate final constructs harboring maize-codon optimized Cas9 and one or more gRNAs with high efficiency in as little as one cloning step. The toolkit was validated using maize protoplasts, transgenic maize lines, and transgenic Arabidopsis lines and was shown to exhibit high efficiency and specificity. More importantly, using this toolkit, targeted mutations of three Arabidopsis genes were detected in transgenic seedlings of the T1 generation. Moreover, the multiple-gene mutations could be inherited by the next generation. We developed a toolkit that facilitates transient or stable expression of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in a variety of plant species, which will facilitate plant research, as it enables high efficiency generation of mutants bearing multiple gene mutations.

Regulation of pattern recognition receptor signalling in plants.

Abstract: Plants depend on cell-autonomous innate immune mechanisms for protection against infection and these pathways are activated in response to pattern recognition receptor (PRR) engagement. However, as is the case in mammals, PRR signalling in plants must be tightly controlled to avoid pathological outcomes; this Review focuses on the mechanisms that regulate plant PRR signalling.

Intracellular innate immune surveillance devices in plants and animals

Abstract: BACKGROUND Pathogens cause agricultural devastation and huge economic losses. Up to 30% of our crops are lost before or after harvest to pathogens and pests, wasting water and human effort. Diseases and pests are major problems for sustainable agriculture in the face of population growth. Similarly, microbial infection remains a major cause of human mortality and morbidity, responsible for ~25% of deaths worldwide in 2012. We lack vaccines for several major infectious diseases, and antibiotic resistance is an ever- growing concern. Plant and animal innate immune systems respond to pathogen infection and regulate beneficial interactions with commensal and symbiotic microbes. Plants and animals use intracellular proteins of the nucleotide binding domain (NBD), leucine-rich repeat (NLR) superfamily to detect many kinds of pathogens. Plant and animal NLRs evolved from distinct derivatives of a common ancestral prokaryotic adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): the NBD shared by APAF-1, plant NLR proteins, and CED-4 (NB-ARC) domain class and that shared by apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP), CIITA, HET-E, TP1 (NACHT) domain class, respectively. Animals and fungi can carry both NB-ARC and NACHT domain proteins, but NACHT domain proteins are absent from plants and several animal taxa, such as Drosophila and nematodes. Despite the vast evolutionary distance between plants and animals, we describe trans-kingdom principles of NLR activation. We propose that NLRs evolved for pathogen-sensing in diverse organisms because the flexible protein domain architecture surrounding the NB-ARC and NACHT domains facilitates evolution of “hair trigger” switches, into which a virtually limitless number of microbial detection platforms can be integrated. ADVANCES Structural biology is beginning to shed light on pre- and postactivation NLR architectures. Various detection and activation platforms have evolved in both plant and animal NLR surveillance systems. This spectrum ranges from direct NLR activation, through binding of microbial ligands, to indirect NLR activation after the modification of host cellular targets, or decoys of those targets, by microbial virulence factors. Homo- and heterotypic dimerization and oligomerization of NLRs add complexity to signaling responses and can enable signal amplification. NLR population genomics across the plant and animal kingdoms is increasing owing to application of new capture-based sequencing methods. A more complete catalog of NLR repertoires within and across species will provide an enhanced toolbox for exploiting NLRs to develop therapeutic interventions. OUTLOOK Despite breakthroughs in our molecular understanding of NLR activation, many important questions remain. Biochemical mechanisms of NLR activation remain obscure. Events downstream of plant NLR activation and outputs such as transcription of defense genes, changes in cell permeability, localized cell death, and systemic signaling remain opaque. We do not know whether activated plant NLRs oligomerize or, if they do, how this is achieved, given the diversity of subcellular sites of activation observed for various NLRs. It is not clear whether and how the different N-terminal domains of plant NLRs signal. We have increasing knowledge regarding how animal NLRs assemble and signal, although knowledge gaps remain. Therapeutic interventions in humans targeting NLRs remain on the horizon. Design of novel recognition capabilities and engineering of new or extended NLR functions to counter disease in animals and plants provides tantalizing future goals to address plant and animal health problems worldwide.

Egg cell-specific promoter-controlled CRISPR/Cas9 efficiently generates homozygous mutants for multiple target genes in Arabidopsis in a single generation.

Abstract: Arabidopsis mutants produced by constitutive overexpression of the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing system are usually mosaics in the T1 generation. In this study, we used egg cell-specific promoters to drive the expression of Cas9 and obtained non-mosaic T1 mutants for multiple target genes with high efficiency. Comparisons of 12 combinations of eight promoters and two terminators found that the efficiency of the egg cell-specific promoter-controlled CRISPR/Cas9 system depended on the presence of a suitable terminator, and the composite promoter generated by fusing two egg cell-specific promoters resulted in much higher efficiency of mutation in the T1 generation compared with the single promoters.