Biosynthetic polyhydroxyalkanoates and their potential in drug delivery

Radiation and industrial polymers

Ionizing radiation has become the most effective way to modify natural and synthetic polymers through crosslinking, degradation, and graft polymerization. This review will include an in-depth analysis of radiation chemistry mechanisms and the kinetics of the radiation-induced C-centered free radical, anion, and cation polymerization, and grafting. It also presents sections on radiation modifications of synthetic and natural polymers. For decades, low linear energy transfer (LLET) ionizing radiation, such as gamma rays, X-rays, and up to 10 MeV electron beams, has been the primary tool to produce many products through polymerization reactions. Photons and electrons interaction with polymers display various mechanisms. While the interactions of gamma ray and X-ray photons are mainly through the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair-production, the interactions of the high-energy electrons take place through coulombic interactions. Despite the type of radiation used on materials, photons or high energy electrons, in both cases ions and electrons are produced. The interactions between electrons and monomers takes place within less than a nanosecond. Depending on the dose rate (dose is defined as the absorbed radiation energy per unit mass), the kinetic chain length of the propagation can be controlled, hence allowing for some control over the degree of polymerization. When polymers are submitted to high-energy radiation in the bulk, contrasting behaviors are observed with a dominant effect of cross-linking or chain scission, depending on the chemical nature and physical characteristics of the material. Polymers in solution are subject to indirect effects resulting from the radiolysis of the medium. Likewise, for radiation-induced polymerization, depending on the dose rate, the free radicals generated on polymer chains can undergo various reactions, such as inter/intramolecular combination or inter/intramolecular disproportionation, b-scission. These reactions lead to structural or functional polymer modifications. In the presence of oxygen, playing on irradiation dose-rates, one can favor crosslinking reactions or promotes degradations through oxidations. The competition between the crosslinking reactions of C-centered free radicals and their reactions with oxygen is described through fundamental mechanism formalisms. The fundamentals of polymerization reactions are herein presented to meet industrial needs for various polymer materials produced or degraded by irradiation. Notably, the medical and industrial applications of polymers are endless and thus it is vital to investigate the effects of sterilization dose and dose rate on various polymers and copolymers with different molecular structures and morphologies. The presence or absence of various functional groups, degree of crystallinity, irradiation temperature, etc. all greatly affect the radiation chemistry of the irradiated polymers. Over the past decade, grafting new chemical functionalities on solid polymers by radiation-induced polymerization (also called RIG for Radiation-Induced Grafting) has been widely exploited to develop innovative materials in coherence with actual societal expectations. These novel materials respond not only to health emergencies but also to carbon-free energy needs (e.g., hydrogen fuel cells, piezoelectricity, etc.) and environmental concerns with the development of numerous specific adsorbents of chemical hazards and pollutants. The modification of polymers through RIG is durable as it covalently bonds the functional monomers. As radiation penetration depths can be varied, this technique can be used to modify polymer surface or bulk. The many parameters influencing RIG that control the yield of the grafting process are discussed in this review. These include monomer reactivity, irradiation dose, solvent, presence of inhibitor of homopolymerization, grafting temperature, etc. Today, the general knowledge of RIG can be applied to any solid polymer and may predict, to some extent, the grafting location. A special focus is on how ionizing radiation sources (ion and electron beams, UVs) may be chosen or mixed to combine both solid polymer nanostructuration and RIG. LLET ionizing radiation has also been extensively used to synthesize hydrogel and nanogel for drug delivery systems and other advanced applications. In particular, nanogels can either be produced by radiation-induced polymerization and simultaneous crosslinking of hydrophilic monomers in "nanocompartments", i.e., within the aqueous phase of inverse micelles, or by intramolecular crosslinking of suitable water-soluble polymers. The radiolytically produced oxidizing species from water, •OH radicals, can easily abstract H-atoms from the backbone of the dissolved polymers (or can add to the unsaturated bonds) leading to the formation of C-centered radicals. These C-centered free radicals can undergo two main competitive reactions; intramolecular and intermolecular crosslinking. When produced by electron beam irradiation, higher temperatures, dose rates within the pulse, and pulse repetition rates favour intramolecular crosslinking over intermolecular crosslinking, thus enabling a better control of particle size and size distribution. For other water-soluble biopolymers such as polysaccharides, proteins, DNA and RNA, the abstraction of H atoms or the addition to the unsaturation by •OH can lead to the direct scission of the backbone, double, or single strand breaks of these polymers.

Polymerization Reactions and Modifications of Polymers by Ionizing Radiation.

Complex-radical alternating copolymerization

Viscosity – Molecular Weight Relationships and Unperturbed Dimensions of Linear Chain Molecules

Um den Einflus der Polymerisationstemperatur auf die Molekulformation des Polyacrylnitrils zu untersuchen, werden zwei Praparate bei zwei verschiedenen Temperaturen unter Verwendung eines Redoxsystems hergestellt. Die Molekulargewichte von sieben Fraktionen des bei −30°C hergestellten Polymerisates („T„-Reihe) und von sechs Fraktionen des bei +60°C gewonnenen („S„-Reihe) werden nach dem Ultrazentrifugen-Verfahren von ARCHIBALD bestimmt.



Zwischen der Viskositatszahl in Dimethylformamid (DMF) und dem Molekulargewicht gelten folgende Beziehungen: 






Die Viskositatsgleichung fur die „S„-Reihe stimmt mit der von CLELAND und STOCKMAYER sehr gut uberein.



Die Mesdaten werden mit Hilfe der neuen Viskositatstheorie von STOCKMAYER und FIXMAN analysiert, um die ungestorten Knaueldimensionen der beiden polymerhomologen Reihen miteinander zu vergleichen. Die dieser Theorie entsprechende Form der [η]-M-Beziehung lautet fur die „S„-Reihe: 








Es wird gefunden, das die ungestorte Knaueldimension der „S„-Reihe um etwa 10% kleiner ist als die der „T„-Reihe. Der sterische Faktor σ, der als Verhaltnis der ungestorten Knaueldimension zu der bei freier Drehbarkeit zu erwartenden definiert wird, liegt bei 2,10 fur die „S„-Reihe und bei 2,30 fur die „T„-Reihe. Dieser Tatsache wird entnommen, das der syndiotaktische Anteil des Polyacrylnitrils durch Erniedrigung der Polymerisationstemperatur vergrosert wird.



In order to study the influences of polymerization temperature upon the molecular conformation of polyacrylonitrile, two types of samples are prepared at two different temperatures using a redox system. By employing the ARCHIBALD ultracentrifugal procedure the molecular weight determination is made for seven fractions from a sample polymerized at −30°C. (“T”-series) and for six ones from that obtained a t +60°C. (“S”-series).



Between the intrinsic viscosity in dimethyl formamide (DMF) and the molecular weight the following relations are found: 






The viscosity equation for the “5”-series is in good agreement with that of CLELAND and STOCKMAYER.



These results are analysed with aid of the recent viscosity theory of STOCKCMAYER and FIXMAN to evaluate the unperturbed dimension of these two homologous series. The [η]- M-relation for the “S”-series in the STOCKMAYER-FIXMAN form is: 








The unperturbed dimension of the „S”-series is found to be smaller than that of the “T”-series. The steric factor σ, defined as the ratio of unperturbed dimension to that corresponding to the free rotation, is about 2.10 and 2.30 for the “S”- and “T”-series, respectively. This leads to the conclusion that the syndiotactic part in the chain of polyacrylonitrile will be increased by a lowering of the temperature of polymerization.

Die ungestörte knäueldimension von polyacrylnitril unter berücksichtigung des einflusses der polymerisationstemperatur

A study of radiation-induced polymerization of nitroethylene indicates an anionic mechanism involving free ions. By the use of hydrogen bromide as an anionic scavenger, the kinetics of the polymerization have been investigated. G(initiation) is about 3, which is much larger than the value (0.1) obtained for many cationic polymerizations of hydrocarbons. This difference may be explained in terms of the large dielectric constant and high electron affinity of this monomer. By kinetic analysis, the propagation rate constant kp at 10°C is estimated to be 4 × 107 M–1 sec–1.

Radiation-induced polymerization of nitroethylene

Poly-3,3-bis(chloromethyl)oxetane (poly-BCMO) was irradiated at −196°C with electron beams and ultraviolet light, and observed ESR spectra were compared. A three-line spectrum (coupling constant of about 21 gauss) and a two-line spectrum (coupling constant of about 18 gauss) were observed after irradiation with electron beams in vacuo. They were attributed to free radicals and respectively. On the other hand, a three-line spectrum (coupling constant of about 20 gauss) and an asymmetric singlet spectrum were observed after ultraviolet irradiation in vacuum. They were assigned to free radicals and CH2O·, respectively. Mechanisms of radical formation were discussed in each case. When poly-BCMO was irradiated with electron beams at −196°C in the presence of air, peroxy radicals were produced after subsequent treatment at −78°C. The reaction between alkyl radicals and oxygen molecules was found to be diffusion-controlled.

Electron spin resonance study of poly-3,3-bis(chloromethyl)oxetane irradiated with electron beams and ultraviolet light.

Radiation induced polymerization of styrene in a dry system

The polymerization of β-propiolactone (βPL) by sodium acetate catalyst has been investigated. The polymerization behavior with monomer purified with calcium chloride was found to be a little different from that previously reported for this monomer. That is, poly-β-propiolactone (PβPL) obtained from βPL dried with CaCl2 has a higher degree of polymerization than that obtained from conventionally treated βPL, and its infrared spectrum shows type II configuration, which differs from that reported in previous papers. Some chain transfer reaction is observed even for the polymerization of the CaCl2–dried βPL; however, this is less important in toluene. The electronegativity of the anion or cation in catalyst greatly influences the rate of polymerization.

Koichiro Hayashi

Papers

Die ungestörte knäueldimension von polyacrylnitril unter berücksichtigung des einflusses der polymerisationstemperatur

Radiation-induced polymerization of nitroethylene

Electron spin resonance study of poly-3,3-bis(chloromethyl)oxetane irradiated with electron beams and ultraviolet light.

Radiation induced polymerization of styrene in a dry system

Ionic graft copolymerization. I. Homopolymerization of β-propiolactone by sodium acetate catalyst