Kwok Leung

Bio: Kwok Leung is an academic researcher from The Chinese University of Hong Kong. The author has contributed to research in topics: Cultural diversity & Personality. The author has an hindex of 73, co-authored 229 publications receiving 22723 citations. Previous affiliations of Kwok Leung include Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong & City University of Hong Kong.

Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research

Abstract: This book gives an up-to-date overview of methodological and data-analytical issues of cross-cultural studies. Written by leading experts in the field, it presents the most important tools for doing cross-cultural research and outlines design considerations, methods, and analytical techniques that can improve ecological validity and help researchers to avoid pitfalls in cross-cultural psychology. By focusing on the relevant research questions that can be tackled with particular methods, it provides practical guidance on how to translate conceptual questions into decisions on study design and statistical techniques. Featuring examples from cognitive and educational assessment, personality, health, and intercultural communication and management, and illustrating key techniques in feature boxes, this concise and accessible guide is essential reading for researchers, graduate students, and professionals who work with culture-comparative data.

Culture and international business: recent advances and their implications for future research

Abstract: The paper provides a state-of-the-art review of several innovative advances in culture and international business (IB) to stimulate new avenues for future research. We first review the issues surrounding cultural convergence and divergence, and the processes underlying cultural changes. We then examine novel constructs for characterizing cultures, and how to enhance the precision of cultural models by pinpointing when cultural effects are important. Finally, we examine the usefulness of experimental methods, which are rarely used by IB researchers. Implications of these path-breaking approaches for future research on culture and IB are discussed.

Views from Inside and Outside: Integrating Emic and Etic Insights about Culture and Justice Judgment

Abstract: We analyze forms of synergy between emic and etic approaches to research on culture and cognition. Drawing on the justice judgment literature, we describe dynamics through which the two approaches stimulate each other's progress. Moreover, we delineate ways in which integrative emic/etic frameworks overcome limitations of narrower frameworks in modeling culture and cognition. Finally, we identify advantages of integrative frameworks in guiding responses to the diverse justice sensitivities in international organizations.

The Impact of Cultural Collectivism on Reward Allocation

Abstract: Chinese University of Hong KongIt is argued that the collectivism of a culture leads to different styles of rewardallocation with in-group and out-group members. Two studies using Chinese andAmerican subjects examined this issue. In the first study an out-group situationwas used, in which subjects were led to believe that they worked with a partnerwhom they would not meet, to obtain a group reward. The collectivistic Chinesesubjects were found to follow the equity norm more closely in dividing the groupreward than the individualistic American subjects when pressure of social evaluationwas removed. In the second study Chinese and American subjects read a scenarioin which an allocator worked with either an in-group or out-group member. Theallocator had either a low or high input and used either the equity or equalitynorm to divide a group reward. Compared with American subjects, Chinesesubjects liked an allocator who divided the group reward equally with an in-groupmember more and regarded such an allocation as fairer. When subjects wereasked to assume that they were the allocator and to hypothetically divide thereward, Chinese subjects followed the equity norm more closely than didAmerican subjects when the recipient was an out-group member or when thesubjects' input was low. However, when the subjects' input was high and therecipient was an in-group member, Chinese subjects followed the equality normmore than did American subjects. These findings are discussed in terms of thedesire for maintaining group solidarity in a collectivist culture.One of the major constructs in theoreticaldiscussions in cross-cultural psychology, so-ciology, and anthropology is that of collectiv-ism-individualism (e.g., Berger, Berger, K Brittan, 1977). However, onlyrecently have we had an empirical basis toevaluate the significance of this construct. Ina large scale survey of beliefs and values in40 countries, Hofstede (1980) extracted fourdimensions of national culture—individual-ism was one of them. In his data the U.S.has the highest score on individualism,whereas countries of a Chinese background(Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan) are onthe collectivistic end of the scale. This resultis consistent with Hsu's (1970) wide-ranging

Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

Abstract: People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured. Substantial progress has been made toward resolving each of these issues. Ten motivationally distinct value types that were likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities were identified. Set of value types that was relatively comprehensive, encompassing virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate importance as criteria of evaluation was demonstrated. The evidence from 20 countries was assembled, showing that the meaning of the value types and most of the single values that constitute them was reasonably equivalent across most groups. Two basic dimensions that organize value systems into an integrated motivational structure with consistent value conflicts and compatibilities were discovered. By identifying universal aspects of value content and structure, the chapter has laid the foundations for investigating culture-specific aspects in the future.

Out of the Crisis

Abstract: According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.

Abstract: Mediation is said to occur when a causal effect of some variable X on an outcome Y is explained by some intervening variable M. The authors recommend that with small to moderate samples, bootstrap methods (B. Efron & R. Tibshirani, 1993) be used to assess mediation. Bootstrap tests are powerful because they detect that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0. They argue that R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility. Empirical examples and computer setups for bootstrap analyses are provided.

In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982.

Abstract: Introduction 1. Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle 2. Images of Relationship 3. Concepts of Self and Morality 4. Crisis and Transition 5. Women's Rights and Women's Judgment 6. Visions of Maturity References Index of Study Participants General Index