Koppen's climate classification remains the most widely used system by geographical and climatological societies across the world, with well recognized simple rules and climate symbol letters. In Brazil, climatology has been studied for more than 140 years, and among the many proposed methods Koppen 0 s system remains as the most utilized. Considering Koppen's climate classification importance for Brazil (geography, biology, ecology, meteorology, hydrology, agronomy, forestry and environmental sciences), we developed a geographical information system to identify Koppen's climate types based on monthly temperature and rainfall data from 2,950 weather stations. Temperature maps were spatially described using multivariate equations that took into account the geographical coordinates and altitude; and the map resolution (100 m) was similar to the digital elevation model derived from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Patterns of rainfall were interpolated using kriging, with the same resolution of temperature maps. The final climate map obtained for Brazil (851,487,700 ha) has a high spatial resolution (1 ha) which allows to observe the climatic variations at the landscape level. The results are presented as maps, graphs, diagrams and tables, allowing users to interpret the occurrence of climate types in Brazil. The zones and climate types are referenced to the most important mountains, plateaus and depressions, geographical landmarks, rivers and watersheds and major cities across the country making the information accessible to all levels of users. The climate map not only showed that the A, B and C zones represent approximately 81%, 5% and 14% of the country but also allowed the identification of Koppen's climates types never reported before in Brazil.

/pdf/koppen-s-climate-classification-map-for-brazil-4w2yckaaof.pdf

Köppen's climate classification map for Brazil

[1] The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission produced the most complete, highest-resolution digital elevation model of the Earth. The project was a joint endeavor of NASA, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, and the German and Italian Space Agencies and flew in February 2000. It used dual radar antennas to acquire interferometric radar data, processed to digital topographic data at 1 arc sec resolution. Details of the development, flight operations, data processing, and products are provided for users of this revolutionary data set.

/pdf/the-shuttle-radar-topography-mission-4x49lt5xnj.pdf

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

On February 22, 2000 Space Shuttle Endeavour landed at Kennedy Space Center, completing the highly successful 11-day flight of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Onboard were over 300 high-density tapes containing data for the highest resolution, most complete digital topographic map of Earth ever made. SRTM is a cooperative project between NASA and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The mission was designed to use a single-pass radar interferometer to produce a digital elevation model (DEM) of the Earth's land surface between about 60 deg north and 56 deg south latitude. When completed, the DEM will have 30 m pixel spacing and about 15 m vertical accuracy. Two orthorectified image mosaics (one from the ascending passes with illumination from the southeast and one from descending passes with illumination from the southwest) will also be produced.

Sentinel-2: ESA's Optical High-Resolution Mission for GMES Operational Services

Settlements in coastal lowlands are especially vulnerable to risks resulting from climate change, yet these lowlands are densely settled and growing rapidly. In this paper, we undertake the fi rst global review of the population and urban settlement patterns in the Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ), defi ned here as the contiguous area along the coast that is less than 10 metres above sea level. Overall, this zone covers 2 per cent of the world's land area but contains 10 per cent of the world's population and 13 per cent of the world's urban population. A dis- proportionate number of the countries with a large share of their population in this zone are small island countries, but most of the countries with large populations in the zone are large countries with heavily populated delta regions. On average, the Least Developed Countries have a higher share of their population living in the zone (14 per cent) than do OECD countries (10 per cent), with even greater disparities in the urban shares (21 per cent compared to 11 per cent). Almost two- thirds of urban settlements with populations greater than 5 million fall, at least partly, in the zone. In some countries (most notably China), urbanization is driving a movement in population towards the coast. Reducing the risk of disasters related to climate change in coastal settlements will require a combination of mitigation, migration and settlement modifi cation.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956247807076960

The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones:

On February 22, 2000, the Space Shuttle Endeavour landed at Kennedy Space Center, completing the highly successful 11-day flight of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Onboard were over 300 high-density tapes containing data for the highest resolution digital topographic map of Earth ever made.

SRTM is a cooperative project between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The mission was designed to use a single-pass radar interferometer to produce a digital elevation model (DEM) of the Earth's land surface between about 60 north and 56 south latitude. When completed, the DEM will have 30-m pixel spacing and about 15-m vertical accuracy. Two ortho-rectified image mosaics, one from the ascending passes with illumination from the southeast, and one from descending passes with illumination from the southwest, will also be produced (Figure 1).

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/EO081i048p00583

Shuttle radar topography mission produces a wealth of data

Digital topographic data are critical for a variety of civilian, commercial, and military applications. Scientists use Digital Elevation Models (DEM) to map drainage patterns and ecosystems, and to monitor land surface changes over time. The mountain-building effects of tectonics and the climatic effects of erosion can also be modeled with DEW The data's military applications include mission planning and rehearsal, modeling and simulation. Commercial applications include determining locations for cellular phone towers, enhanced ground proximity warning systems for aircraft, and improved maps for backpackers. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) (Fig. 1), is a cooperative project between NASA and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The mission is designed to use a single-pass radar interferometer to produce a digital elevation model of the Earth's land surface between about 60 degrees north and south latitude. The DEM will have 30 m pixel spacing and about 15 m vertical errors.

/pdf/the-shuttle-radar-topography-mission-a-global-dem-nzb6lomkor.pdf

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: A Global DEM

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-C and X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) (Figure 1) is a cooperative space shuttle experiment between NASA, the German Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency. The experiment is the next evolutionary step in NASA's Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) program that began with the Seasat Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in 1978 and continued with SIR-A in 1981 and SIR-B in 1984. It also represents a continuation of Germany's imaging radar program, which started with the Microwave Remote Sensing Experiment flown aboard the Shuttle on the first SPACELAB mission in 1983. The SIR-C/X-SAR mission benefits from synergism with the Magellan mission to Venus, other international spaceborne radar programs, and prototype aircraft sensors such as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Airborne SAR (AIRSAR) and the German Aerospace Establishment (DLR) E-SAR.

The shuttle imaging radar‐C and X‐SAR mission

Ah"lracl- This paper descrihes a technique for registering polari­ metric SAR data to oth ... aircraft and spaceborne data sets. Resam­ piin g is done on the full Stoke s matrix, allowing full polarization syn­ thesis on the coregistered data set. Analysis of data acquired over Pisgah Crater in the Mojave Desert, CA, as part of the Mojave Field Experiment show that the resampling does not seriously affect the ped­ estal heights of polarization signatures or impact estimates of rms heig hts for smooth to moderately rough surfaces.

M. Kobrick

Papers

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

Shuttle radar topography mission produces a wealth of data

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: A Global DEM

The shuttle imaging radar‐C and X‐SAR mission

Incorporation Of Polarimetric Radar Images Into Multisensor Data Sets