Showing papers by "Marc A. Meyers published in 2015"

Structural Design Elements in Biological Materials: Application to Bioinspiration

Abstract: Eight structural elements in biological materials are identified as the most common amongst a variety of animal taxa. These are proposed as a new paradigm in the field of biological materials science as they can serve as a toolbox for rationalizing the complex mechanical behavior of structural biological materials and for systematizing the development of bioinspired designs for structural applications. They are employed to improve the mechanical properties, namely strength, wear resistance, stiffness, flexibility, fracture toughness, and energy absorption of different biological materials for a variety of functions (e.g., body support, joint movement, impact protection, weight reduction). The structural elements identified are: fibrous, helical, gradient, layered, tubular, cellular, suture, and overlapping. For each of the structural design elements, critical design parameters are presented along with constitutive equations with a focus on mechanical properties. Additionally, example organisms from varying biological classes are presented for each case to display the wide variety of environments where each of these elements is present. Examples of current bioinspired materials are also introduced for each element.

On the tear resistance of skin

Abstract: Tear resistance is of vital importance in the various functions of skin, especially protection from predatorial attack. Here, we mechanistically quantify the extreme tear resistance of skin and identify the underlying structural features, which lead to its sophisticated failure mechanisms. We explain why it is virtually impossible to propagate a tear in rabbit skin, chosen as a model material for the dermis of vertebrates. We express the deformation in terms of four mechanisms of collagen fibril activity in skin under tensile loading that virtually eliminate the possibility of tearing in pre-notched samples: fibril straightening, fibril reorientation towards the tensile direction, elastic stretching and interfibrillar sliding, all of which contribute to the redistribution of the stresses at the notch tip.

The materials science of collagen.

Abstract: Collagen is the principal biopolymer in the extracellular matrix of both vertebrates and invertebrates. It is produced in specialized cells (fibroblasts) and extracted into the body by a series of intra and extracellular steps. It is prevalent in connective tissues, and the arrangement of collagen determines the mechanical response. In biomineralized materials, its fraction and spatial distribution provide the necessary toughness and anisotropy. We review the structure of collagen, with emphasis on its hierarchical arrangement, and present constitutive equations that describe its mechanical response, classified into three groups: hyperelastic macroscopic models based on strain energy in which strain energy functions are developed; macroscopic mathematical fits with a nonlinear constitutive response; structurally and physically based models where a constitutive equation of a linear elastic material is modified by geometric characteristics. Viscoelasticity is incorporated into the existing constitutive models and the effect of hydration is discussed. We illustrate the importance of collagen with descriptions of its organization and properties in skin, fish scales, and bone, focusing on the findings of our group.

Grain-size dependent mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline metals

Abstract: Grain size has a profound effect on the mechanical response of metals. Molecular dynamics continues to expand its range from a handful of atoms to grain sizes up to 50 nm, albeit commonly at strain rates generally upwards of 106 s−1. In this review we examine the most important theories of grain size dependent mechanical behavior pertaining to the nanocrystalline regime. For the sake of clarity, grain sizes d are commonly divided into three regimes: d>1 μm, 1 μm

Why the seahorse tail is square

Abstract: Whereas the predominant shapes of most animal tails are cylindrical, seahorse tails are square prisms. Seahorses use their tails as flexible grasping appendages, in spite of a rigid bony armor that fully encases their bodies. We explore the mechanics of two three-dimensional-printed models that mimic either the natural (square prism) or hypothetical (cylindrical) architecture of a seahorse tail to uncover whether or not the square geometry provides any functional advantages. Our results show that the square prism is more resilient when crushed and provides a mechanism for preserving articulatory organization upon extensive bending and twisting, as compared with its cylindrical counterpart. Thus, the square architecture is better than the circular one in the context of two integrated functions: grasping ability and crushing resistance.

Mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of hot extruded Mg-2.5Zn-1Ca alloy

Abstract: It is demonstrated that the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of Mg–2.5 wt%Zn–1 wt%Ca alloy are enhanced by the microstructural changes imparted by hot extrusion. A processing procedure is developed to form hollow tubes with an outer diameter of ∼2.0 mm and wall thickness of ∼0.1 mm, which is well suited for subsequent stent manufacturing. The influence of thermal and mechanical processing on corrosion and plasticity was found to be associated with grain-size reduction and the redistribution of intermetallic particles within the microstructure, providing significant improvement of performance over the cast alloy. Observation of the fracture surfaces reveals a mode transition from brittle (cast) to ductile (processed). Enhanced mechanical properties and decreased resorption rate represent significantly improved performance of this alloy after the novel processing sequence. Based on the improved properties, the produced Mg alloy is more suitable for practical in vivo applications.

Probing the character of ultra-fast dislocations.

Abstract: Plasticity is often controlled by dislocation motion, which was first measured for low pressure, low strain rate conditions decades ago. However, many applications require knowledge of dislocation motion at high stress conditions where the data are sparse, and come from indirect measurements dominated by the effect of dislocation density rather than velocity. Here we make predictions based on atomistic simulations that form the basis for a new approach to measure dislocation velocities directly at extreme conditions using three steps: create prismatic dislocation loops in a near-surface region using nanoindentation, drive the dislocations with a shockwave, and use electron microscopy to determine how far the dislocations moved and thus their velocity at extreme stress and strain rate conditions. We report on atomistic simulations of tantalum that make detailed predictions of dislocation flow, and find that the approach is feasible and can uncover an exciting range of phenomena, such as transonic dislocations and a novel form of loop stretching. The simulated configuration enables a new class of experiments to probe average dislocation velocity at very high applied shear stress.

Phase Transformation in Tantalum under Extreme Laser Deformation

Abstract: The structural and mechanical response of metals is intimately connected to phase transformations. For instance, the product of a phase transformation (martensite) is responsible for the extraordinary range of strength and toughness of steel, making it a versatile and important structural material. Although abundant in metals and alloys, the discovery of new phase transformations is not currently a common event and often requires a mix of experimentation, predictive computations, and luck. High-energy pulsed lasers enable the exploration of extreme pressures and temperatures, where such discoveries may lie. The formation of a hexagonal (omega) phase was observed in recovered monocrystalline body-centered cubic tantalum of four crystallographic orientations subjected to an extreme regime of pressure, temperature, and strain-rate. This was accomplished using high-energy pulsed lasers. The omega phase and twinning were identified by transmission electron microscopy at 70 GPa (determined by a corresponding VISAR experiment). It is proposed that the shear stresses generated by the uniaxial strain state of shock compression play an essential role in the transformation. Molecular dynamics simulations show the transformation of small nodules from body-centered cubic to a hexagonal close-packed structure under the same stress state (pressure and shear).

Room Temperature Dynamic Strain Aging in Ultrafine-Grained Titanium

Abstract: Dynamic strain aging (DSA) in coarse-grained (CG) titanium is usually observed at intermediate to high temperatures 473 K to 973 K (200 °C to 700 °C) and is characterized by serrations in the stress vs strain curves. In the present work, despite the absence of apparent serrations, ultrafine-grained titanium (UFG Ti) undergoes DSA at room temperature, exhibited through an abnormal increase in the elastic limit and negative strain rate sensitivity. This effect is observed at 293 K (20 °C) in the strain rate interval of 10−4 to 10−2 s−1, and at 203 K (−70 °C) and 373 K (100 °C) in a distinct strain rate range. Based on a calculated activation energy of 17.3 kJ/mol and microstructural observations by transmission electron microscopy, it is proposed that the dominant mechanism for DSA in UFG Ti involves interstitial solutes interacting with dislocations emitted from grain boundaries. The interstitials migrate from the grain boundaries along dislocation lines bowing out as they are emitted from the boundaries, a mechanism with a low calculated activation energy which is comparable with the experimental measurements. The dislocation velocities and interstitial diffusion along the dislocation cores are consistent.

Braze welding of cobalt with a silver–copper filler

Abstract: A new method of joining cobalt by braze-welding it with a silver–copper filler was developed in order to better understand the residual stresses in beryllium–aluminum/silicon weldments which are problematic to investigate because of the high toxicity of Be. The base and filler metals of this new welding system were selected to replicate the physical properties, crystal structures, and chemical behavior of the Be–AlSi welds. Welding parameters of this surrogate Co–AgCu system were determined by experimentation combining 4-point bending tests and microscopy. Final welds are 5 pass manual TIG (tungsten inert gas), with He top gas and Ar back gas. Control of the welding process produces welds with full penetration melting of the cobalt base. Microscopy indicates that cracking is minimal, and not through thickness, whereas 4-point bending shows failure is not by base-filler delamination. These welds improve upon the original Be–AlSi welds, which do not possess full penetration, and have considerable porosity. We propose that utilization of our welding methods will increase the strength of the Be–AlSi weldments. The specialized welding techniques developed for this study may be applicable not only for the parent Be–AlSi welds, but to braze welds and welds utilizing brittle materials in general. This concept of surrogacy may prove useful in the study of many different types of exotic welds.

Failure mechanisms in cobalt welded with a silver–copper filler

Abstract: Cobalt silver–copper (Co–AgCu) weldments approximate the stresses and failure mechanisms of beryllium aluminum–silicon (Be–AlSi) welds, which have strategic importance but are hazardous to study. Failure tests of these surrogate Co–AgCu welds, examined in tension and four-point bending, show that residual stresses and post-welding heat treatment have little or no effect on strength, whereas weld quality and geometry are extremely important. Scanning electron microscopy images reveal abundant defects in poor welds, which usually fail through propagation of preexisting cracks. Fracture surfaces show a variety of morphologies, ranging from dimples in the AgCu filler, to cleavage steps in the CoCu peritectic, and suspected intergranular fracture in the cobalt base. Spatially resolved acoustic spectroscopy reveals significant changes in microstructure near the base–filler interface, whereas wavelength dispersive analysis shows high Cu concentrations in this area.. Contrary to finite element predictions, these welds were found to be stronger during face bending than root bending, likely resulting from the increased number of cracks and imperfections in the Co base. These computations correctly predict that weld strength depends on geometry and that welds fail either in the cobalt base, or along the base–filler interface. Crack compliance measurements show that the largest residual stresses are located along this interface. However, these stresses are unlikely to influence failure due to their direction, whereas stresses in the weld root are too small to have observable effects on failure. The strength of Co–AgCu welds depends strongly on geometry, penetration, and weld quality, but little on residual stresses, and this conclusion is tentatively extended to Be–AlSi welds.