This chapter discusses leading problems linked to energy that the world is now confronting and to propose some ideas concerning possible solutions. Oil deserves special attention among all energy sources. Since the beginning of 1981, it has merely been continuing and enhancing the downward movement in consumption and prices caused by excessive rises, especially for light crudes such as those from Africa, and the slowing down of worldwide economic growth. Densely-populated oil-producing countries need to produce to live, to pay for their food and their equipment. If the economic growth of the industrialized countries were to be 4%, even if investment in the rational use of energy were pushed to the limit and the development of nonpetroleum energy sources were also pursued actively, it would be extremely difficult to prevent a sharp rise in prices. It is evident that it is absolutely necessary to pursue actively the development of coal, natural gas, and nuclear power if a physical shortage of energy is not to block economic growth.

World energy outlook

This manual presents a scientifically rigorous method to help companies understand their dependency and impact on global water resources, and offers guidance on response strategies that conserve water for industry, communities, and nature. It contains the global standard for water footprint assessment as developed and maintained by the Water Footprint Network. It covers a comprehensive set of definitions and methods for water footprint accounting. It shows how water footprints are calculated for individual processes and products, as well as for consumers, nations, and businesses. It also includes methods for water footprint sustainability assessment and a library of water footprint response options. The water footprint of a product is the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured over the fully supply chain. It is a multidimensional indicator, showing water consumption volumes by source and polluted volumes by type of pollution; all components of a total water footprint are specified geographically and temporally.

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The Water Footprint Assessment Manual: Setting the Global Standard

After many years of intense negotiations, the 195 parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted on 12 December 2015 in Paris a new global agreement on how all countries collectively will tackle climate change. The Paris Agreement is widely recognized as the most significant environmental treaty ever adopted, with strong positive implications on development, international cooperation and, of course, for the climate. The ambition is to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2oC above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5oC.

United nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc)

Climate Change 1995 is a scientific assessment that was generated by more than 1 000 contributors from over 50 nations. It was jointly co-ordinated through two international agencies; the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme. The assessment was completed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with a primary aim of reviewing the current state of knowledge concerning the impacts of climate change on physical and ecological systems, human health, and socioeconomic factors. The second aim was to review the available information on the technical and economic feasibility of the potential mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Climate Change 1995

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Introduction To Robust Estimation And Hypothesis Testing

The impact of climate change on the water resources of Hindukush–Karakorum–Himalaya region under different glacier coverage scenarios

Impact of climate change on river flooding assessed with different spatial model resolutions

National water use accounts are generally limited to statistics on water withdrawals in the different sectors of economy. They are restricted to "blue water accounts" related to production, thus excluding (a) "green" and "grey water accounts", (b) accounts of internal and international virtual water flows and (c) water accounts related to consumption. This paper shows how national water-use accounts can be extended through an example for Indonesia. The study quantifies interprovincial virtual water flows related to trade in crop products and assesses the green, blue and grey water footprint related to the consumption of crop products per Indonesian province. The study shows that the average water footprint in Indonesia insofar related to consumption of crop products is 1131 m3/cap/yr, but provincial water footprints vary between 859 and 1895 m3/cap/yr. Java, the most water-scarce island, has a net virtual water import and the most significant external water footprint. This large external water footprint is relieving the water scarcity on this island. Trade will remain necessary to supply food to the most densely populated areas where water scarcity is highest (Java).

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The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products

Simulation and forecasting of streamflows using machine learning models coupled with base flow separation.

Green water––rainfall over land that eventually flows back to the atmosphere as evapotranspiration––is the main source of water to produce food, feed, fiber, timber, and bioenergy. To understand how freshwater scarcity constrains production of these goods, we need to consider limits to the green water footprint (WF g ), the green water flow allocated to human society. However, research traditionally focuses on scarcity of blue water––groundwater and surface water. Here we expand the debate on water scarcity by considering green water scarcity (WS g ). At 5 × 5 arc-minute spatial resolution, we quantify WF g and the maximum sustainable level to this footprint (WF g,m ), while accounting for green water requirements to support biodiversity. We then estimate WS g per country as the ratio of the national aggregate WF g to the national aggregate WF g,m . We find that globally WF g amounts to 56% of WF g,m , and overshoots it in several places, for example in countries in Europe, Central America, the Middle East, and South Asia. The sustainably available green water flows in these countries are mostly or fully allocated to human activities (predominately agriculture and forestry), occasionally at the cost of green water flows earmarked for nature. By ignoring limits to the growing human WF g , we risk further loss of ecosystem values that depend on the remaining untouched green water flows. We emphasize that green water is a critical and limited resource that should explicitly be part of any assessment of water scarcity, food security, or bioenergy potential.

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Martijn J. Booij

Papers

The impact of climate change on the water resources of Hindukush–Karakorum–Himalaya region under different glacier coverage scenarios

Impact of climate change on river flooding assessed with different spatial model resolutions

The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products

Simulation and forecasting of streamflows using machine learning models coupled with base flow separation.

Limits to the world’s green water resources for food, feed, fiber, timber, and bioenergy