Three-dimensional (3D) displays have become important for many applications including vision research, operation of remote devices, medical imaging, surgical training, scientific visualization, virtual prototyping, and more. In many of these applications, it is important for the graphic image to create a faithful impression of the 3D structure of the portrayed object or scene. Unfortunately, 3D displays often yield distortions in perceived 3D structure compared with the percepts of the real scenes the displays depict. A likely cause of such distortions is the fact that computer displays present images on one surface. Thus, focus cues-accommodation and blur in the retinal image-specify the depth of the display rather than the depths in the depicted scene. Additionally, the uncoupling of vergence and accommodation required by 3D displays frequently reduces one's ability to fuse the binocular stimulus and causes discomfort and fatigue for the viewer. We have developed a novel 3D display that presents focus cues that are correct or nearly correct for the depicted scene. We used this display to evaluate the influence of focus cues on perceptual distortions, fusion failures, and fatigue. We show that when focus cues are correct or nearly correct, (1) the time required to identify a stereoscopic stimulus is reduced, (2) stereoacuity in a time-limited task is increased, (3) distortions in perceived depth are reduced, and (4) viewer fatigue and discomfort are reduced. We discuss the implications of this work for vision research and the design and use of displays.

Vergence-accommodation conflicts hinder visual performance and cause visual fatigue.

Immersion is the subjective impression that one is participating in a comprehensive, realistic experience. Interactive media now enable various degrees of digital immersion. The more a virtual immersive experience is based on design strategies that combine actional, symbolic, and sensory factors, the greater the participant's suspension of disbelief that she or he is "inside" a digitally enhanced setting. Studies have shown that immersion in a digital environment can enhance education in at least three ways: by allowing multiple perspectives, situated learning, and transfer. Further studies are needed on the capabilities of immersive media for learning, on the instructional designs best suited to each type of immersive medium, and on the learning strengths and preferences these media develop in users.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/323/5910/66.full.pdf

Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning.

Virtual reality: applications and implications for tourism.

https://www.cse.unr.edu/~mircea/Publications/mn_cviu07.pdf

Vision-based hand pose estimation: A review

The use of animation and multimedia for learning is now further extended by the provision of entire Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLE). This highlights a shift in Web-based learning from a conventional multimedia to a more immersive, interactive, intuitive and exciting VR learning environment. VRLEs simulate the real world through the application of 3D models that initiates interaction, immersion and trigger the imagination of the learner. The question of good pedagogy and use of technology innovations comes into focus once again. Educators attempt to find theoretical guidelines or instructional principles that could assist them in developing and applying a novel VR learning environment intelligently. This paper introduces the educational use of Web-based 3D technologies and highlights in particular VR features. It then identifies constructivist learning as the pedagogical engine driving the construction of VRLE and discusses five constructivist learning approaches. Furthermore, the authors provide two case studies to investigate VRLEs for learning purposes. The authors conclude with formulating some guidelines for the effective use of VRLEs, including discussion of the limitations and implications for the future study of VRLEs.

Investigating learners' attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments: Based on a constructivist approach

/pdf/handbook-of-virtual-environments-5brgdjv4t8.pdf

Handbook of virtual environments

Teleoperation requires a complex combination of the operator's cognitive, perceptual, and motor skills. Our experiment tested the ability of subjects to teleoperate a remote robot under different conditions of increasing sensory feedback. We also evaluated each operator's spatial perception skills using a battery of tests to understand the effect of spatial perception on the operator's ability to perform the teleoperation task. The experiment showed that the spatial ability of an operator-as reflected by a test battery of two spatial recognition and two spatial manipulation tests-was significantly correlated with the ability to teleoperate the robot through a maze. Surprisingly, providing different combinations of visual, auditory, and vibro-tactile feedback to the operator did not significantly change performance. However, there was an interaction between spatial ability and feedback condition that affected teleoperation performance.

The effects of operator spatial perception and sensory feedback on human-robot teleoperation performance

A robotic apparatus (1260) and system adapted to communicate with a wireless sensor (172). The apparatus may be either physical or virtual in nature and is adapted to communicate physical movements with a wireless sensor (172). Data received from the sensor (172) and/or robotic apparatus (1260) may be reviewed in a real-time mode, or may be saved for review at a later time. In addition, the apparatus may be controlled through an operator that is in local or remote communication with the apparatus. The robotic system (1260) may include pre-programmed interactive platforms for enabling communication between a user and the apparatus in a dynamic mode. In addition, the system may allow an operator to program a game/story (1270) for use as an interactive platform. Accordingly, the apparatus and system provides a platform for rehabilitative exercise of a patient (1252) as well as an entertainment device.

Robotic apparatus and wireless communication system

Skills are generally acquired by learning a set of facts about a task and developing appropriate
procedures. For example, to learn to fly a plane, you first might learn the function of the
flight controls and their locations and then practice manipulating the controls in appropriate
sequences for a flight procedure. The practice part of training often cannot be done in the actual
situation; a plane may not be available or the cost of the plane and an instructor on a regular
basis may be prohibitive. In these situations, training is provided in alternative environments,
or simulators, that mimic the target task. Designing simulators that will produce effective
training has been a long-standing goal for those involved in skill acquisition, and the success
of such simulations is generally measured by the effectiveness of subsequent performance on
the actual task-the degree of “transfer” from the simulated to the real environment.

Using Virtual Environments as Training Simulators: Measuring Transfer

Virtual Reality (VR) based simulators have been used as a training tool in many settings, although very few studies examine transfer of training from simulators to a real world task, particularly for manipulation tasks. Simulators could play a key role as an enabling technology for manipulation tasks related to teleoperation, and medical procedure training. We investigated the relationship between motor tasks and participants' spatial abilities. This relationship was further examined with respect to learning in a simulator and to transfer of training from the simulator to the real world on a pick-and-place task. Spatial abilities were characterized using a battery of recognition and manipulation figural tests. Subjects with lower spatial abilities demonstrated significant positive transfer from a simulator based training task to a similar real world robotic operation task. Subjects with higher spatial skills did not respond as positively from training in a simulated environment.

Michael R. Tracey

Papers

Handbook of virtual environments

The effects of operator spatial perception and sensory feedback on human-robot teleoperation performance

Robotic apparatus and wireless communication system

Using Virtual Environments as Training Simulators: Measuring Transfer

The interaction of spatial ability and motor learning in the transfer of training from a simulator to a real task.