Pseudoreplication is defined. as the use of inferential statistics to test for treatment effects with data from experiments where either treatments are not replicated (though samples may be) or replicates are not statistically independent. In ANOVA terminology, it is the testing for treatment effects with an error term inappropriate to the hypothesis being considered. Scrutiny of 176 experi- mental studies published between 1960 and the present revealed that pseudoreplication occurred in 27% of them, or 48% of all such studies that applied inferential statistics. The incidence of pseudo- replication is especially high in studies of marine benthos and small mammals. The critical features of controlled experimentation are reviewed. Nondemonic intrusion is defined as the impingement of chance events on an experiment in progress. As a safeguard against both it and preexisting gradients, interspersion of treatments is argued to be an obligatory feature of good design. Especially in small experiments, adequate interspersion can sometimes be assured only by dispensing with strict random- ization procedures. Comprehension of this conflict between interspersion and randomization is aided by distinguishing pre-layout (or conventional) and layout-specifit alpha (probability of type I error). Suggestions are offered to statisticians and editors of ecological j oumals as to how ecologists' under- standing of experimental design and statistics might be improved.

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Pseudoreplication and the Design of Ecological Field Experiments

Biological effects of essential oils - A review

Allergic rhinitis is a symptomatic disorder of the nose induced after allergen exposure by an IgE-mediated inflammation of the membranes lining the nose. It is a global health problem that causes major illness and disability worldwide. Over 600 million patients from all countries, all ethnic groups and of all ages suffer from allergic rhinitis. It affects social life, sleep, school and work and its economic impact is substantial. Risk factors for allergic rhinitis are well identified. Indoor and outdoor allergens as well as occupational agents cause rhinitis and other allergic diseases. The role of indoor and outdoor pollution is probably very important, but has yet to be fully understood both for the occurrence of the disease and its manifestations.

In 1999, during the Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) WHO workshop, the expert panel proposed a new classification for allergic rhinitis which was subdivided into 'intermittent' or 'persistent' disease.

This classification is now validated. The diagnosis of allergic rhinitis is often quite easy, but in some cases it may cause problems and many patients are still under-diagnosed, often because they do not perceive the symptoms of rhinitis as a disease impairing their social life, school and work.

The management of allergic rhinitis is well established and the ARIA expert panel based its recommendations on evidence using an extensive review of the literature available up to December 1999. The statements of evidence for the development of these guidelines followed WHO rules and were based on those of Shekelle et al. A large number of papers have been published since 2000 and are extensively reviewed in the 2008 Update using the same evidence-based system. Recommendations for the management of allergic rhinitis are similar in both the ARIA workshop report and the 2008 Update. In the future, the GRADE approach will be used, but is not yet available.

Another important aspect of the ARIA guidelines was to consider co-morbidities. Both allergic rhinitis and asthma are systemic inflammatory conditions and often co-exist in the same patients. In the 2008 Update, these links have been confirmed.

The ARIA document is not intended to be a standard-of-care document for individual countries. It is provided as a basis for physicians, health care professionals and organizations involved in the treatment of allergic rhinitis and asthma in various countries to facilitate the development of relevant local standard-of-care documents for patients.

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Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen)

Dengue fever and dengue haemorrhagic fever are important arthropod-borne viral diseases. Each year, there are ∼50 million dengue infections and ∼500,000 individuals are hospitalized with dengue haemorrhagic fever, mainly in Southeast Asia, the Pacific and the Americas. Illness is produced by any of the four dengue virus serotypes. A global strategy aimed at increasing the capacity for surveillance and outbreak response, changing behaviours and reducing the disease burden using integrated vector management in conjunction with early and accurate diagnosis has been advocated. Antiviral drugs and vaccines that are currently under development could also make an important contribution to dengue control in the future.

Dengue: a continuing global threat

General Aspects.- Systematics.- Biology of Mosquitoes.- Medical Importance of Mosquitoes.- Mosquito Research Techniques.- Morphology of Mosquitoes.- Identification Keys Morphology Ecology and Distribution of European Species.- Key to Female Mosquitoes.- Key to Male Mosquitoes.- Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae.- Subfamily Anophelinae.- Subfamily Culicinae.- Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species - Worldwide.- Africa.- Asia.- Australia.- Central and South America.- North America.- Control of Mosquitoes.- Biological Control.- Environmental Management of Mosquitoes.- Chemical Control.- Physical Control.- Genetic Control of Mosquitoes.- Personal Protection.- Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures.

Mosquitoes and their Control

The Global Malaria Eradication Program, launched in the middle of the last century, over-promised and under-delivered [1]. Decades of pessimism followed, during which malariologists were afraid to even mention the goal of this program by name [2]. The term eradication was often nervously referred to as “the E-word” by a disillusioned community that had learned from bitter experience that optimistic forecasts [3] had been based on an oversimplified view of transmission ecology [4]. Eradication of malaria remains beyond our grasp today, but is nevertheless firmly back on the global health agenda as a long-term target [5].

Ecology: a prerequisite for malaria elimination and eradication.

Botanical insecticides are relatively safe and degradable, and are readily available sources of biopesticides The most prominent phytochemical pesticides in recent years are those derived from neem trees, which have been studied extensively in the fields of entomology and phytochemistry, and have uses for medicinal and cosmetic purposes The neem products have been obtained from several species of neem trees in the family Meliaceae Six species in this family have been the subject of botanical pesticide research They are Azadirachta indica A Juss, Azadirachta excelsa Jack, Azadirachta siamens Valeton, Melia azedarach L, Melia toosendan Sieb and Zucc, and Melia volkensii Gurke The Meliaceae, especially A indica (Indian neem tree), contains at least 35 biologically active principles Azadirachtin is the predominant insecticidal active ingredient in the seed, leaves, and other parts of the neem tree Azadirachtin and other compounds in neem products exhibit various modes of action against insects such as antifeedancy, growth regulation, fecundity suppression and sterilization, oviposition repellency or attractancy, changes in biological fitness, and blocking development of vector-borne pathogens Some of these bioactivity parameters of neem products have been investigated at least in some species of insects of medical and veterinary importance, such as mosquitoes, flies, triatomines, cockroaches, fleas, lice, and others Here we review, synthesize, and analyze published information on the activity, modes of action, and other biological effects of neem products against arthropods of medical and veterinary importance The amount of information on the activity, use, and application of neem products for the control of disease vectors and human and animal pests is limited Additional research is needed to determine the potential usefulness of neem products in vector control programs

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Activity and biological effects of neem products against arthropods of medical and veterinary importance

Several commonly available and experimental insecticides were evaluated for control of chironomid midge larvae, Chironomus spp., Proclaideus spp., and Tanytarsus spp. in 2 recreational lakes.

In Lake Calabasas, where the bottom has a thin layer of mud on a surface of cement, standard midge larvicides such as Abate® ( O, O -dimethyl phosphorothioate O, O -diester with 4,4′-thiodiphenol) and fenthion proved highly effective. Fenthion at 0.5 Ib per surface acre controlled the larvae for more than 7 weeks. At this rate of application very slight mortality of the mosquito fish Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) was observed. Abate at 0.75 pounds per acre controlled the midges for about 4–5 weeks and caused slight mortality of the fish. Dursban® ( O, O -diethyl O -(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl) phosphorothioate) at the rate of 0.2 Ib/acre yielded long-lasting control of midge larvae, the suppression lasting for almost 5 months.

In Westlake (about 10 miles from Lake Calabasas), with a natural bottom, where small portions were treated, fenthion at 0.5 lb/acre yielded little or no control of the midge larvae. Abate at 0.5 pounds per acre produced similar results. Carbaryl at 0.5 and 1.0 pounds per acre yielded good control, but its longevity was for only 2-3 weeks.

Dursban insecticide applied as granules or sprays at 0.2 pounds per acre yielded excellent control of midge larvae. The granular formulations produced better and longer-lasting larval control than an emulsifiable concentrate formulation. The latter formulation at 0.2 lb/acre or higher rate caused slight kill of blugill, Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque; largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides Lacepede; and black crappie, Pornoxis nigromaculatus (Le Sueur) in the lake. No mortality of fish was observed in plots treated with a granular formulation of Dursban at the same rate.

Control of Chironomid Midges in Recreational Lakes

The oviposition responses of Culex tarsalis and C. pipiens quinquefasciatus females to 2 organic infusions have been studied in the laboratory. A 1% lab chow infusion was significantly repellent to ovipositing C. tarsalis and C. p. quinquefasciatus females when tested in both one liter choice bioassay units and screen cage choice tests. C. p. quinquefasciatus females were attracted to a 1% chicken manure infusion while C. tarsalis females were repelled by this infusion when both were tested in one-liter units. These infusions were quite stable when stored at –20°C and remained active for 10 wk. Biological parameters including interval between blood feeding and oviposition, parity, and prior exposure to test infusions in bioassays did not affect the responses to the 1% lab chow infusion. Microorganisms were found to be involved in the responses to both infusions.

Oviposition Attractants and Repellents of Mosquitoes: Oviposition Responses of Culex Mosquitoes to Organic Infusions

An investigation of the effects of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) predation was conducted in 12 experimental ponds in southern California over a period of 10 months.Gambusia essentially eliminatedDaphnia pulex andCeriodaphnia sp. populations, reducedDiaptomus pallidus andKeratella quadrata populations, had little impact onCyclops vernalis, and caused large increases inK. cochlearis, Polyarthra sp.,Synchaeta sp., andTrichocerca spp. populations and in total phytoplankton.Gambusia caused a decrease in the PIE (probability of interspecific encounter) of the planktonic crustaceans and an increase in the PIE of the planktonic rotifers. Hemiptera, such as neustonicMicrovelia sp. and nektonicBuenoa sp. andNotonecta sp., andHyla regilla tadpoles were absent from fish ponds but sometimes abundant in control ponds.Gambusia caused higher pH and oxygen levels, presumably via its effect on the phytoplankton. The impact ofGambusia on the pond ecosystems was less in winter, when fish numbers and feeding rates were low, than in summer. Results of other fish-plankton studies are summarized in tabular form. A model is proposed to account for variation in the calanoid/cyclopoid ratio; evidence is summarized suggesting that in general calanoids are more susceptible to predation by predaceous zooplankters while cyclopoids are more susceptible to fish predation. Some parallels are drawn between the effects ofGambusia predation and those of insecticide treatments.

Mir S. Mulla

Papers

Ecology: a prerequisite for malaria elimination and eradication.

Activity and biological effects of neem products against arthropods of medical and veterinary importance

Control of Chironomid Midges in Recreational Lakes

Oviposition Attractants and Repellents of Mosquitoes: Oviposition Responses of Culex Mosquitoes to Organic Infusions

Impacts of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) predation on plankton communities