Understanding others’ mental states is a crucial skill that enables the complex social relationships that characterize human societies. Yet little research has investigated what fosters this skill, which is known as Theory of Mind (ToM), in adults. We present five experiments showing that reading literary fiction led to better performance on tests of affective ToM (experiments 1 to 5) and cognitive ToM (experiments 4 and 5) compared with reading nonfiction (experiments 1), popular fiction (experiments 2 to 5), or nothing at all (experiments 2 and 5). Specifically, these results show that reading literary fiction temporarily enhances ToM. More broadly, they suggest that ToM may be influenced by engagement with works of art.

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Reading Literary Fiction Improves Theory of Mind

We propose a communication analogue to Allport's (1954) Contact Hypothesis called the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis (PCH). If people process mass-mediated parasocial interaction in a manner similar to interpersonal interaction, then the socially beneficial functions of intergroup contact may result from parasocial contact. We describe and test the PCH with respect to majority group members' level of prejudice in three studies, two involving parasocial contact with gay men (Six Feet Under and Queer Eye for the Straight Guy) and one involving parasocial contact with comedian and male transvestite Eddie Izzard. In all three studies, parasocial contact was associated with lower levels of prejudice. Moreover, tests of the underlying mechanisms of PCH were generally supported, suggesting that parasocial contact facilitates positive parasocial responses and changes in beliefs about the attributes of minority group categories.

https://cmsw.mit.edu/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/The-Parasocial-Contact-Hypothesis.pdf

The Parasocial Contact Hypothesis

The Black Image In the White Mind: Media and Race in America, Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001. 320 pp. $15 pbk. What exactly is the injury suffered when "television news, entertainment and advertising, as well as Hollywood films, register and help both to alter and to perpetuate White America's racial disquiet?" The answer to this query is the subject of the book The Black Image In the White Mind: Media and Race in America by Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, The authors focus on African Americans because of their consistent visibility, their long history of discrimination and oppression in America, the availability of research tools where ready identification of subjects' race is used, and the authors' wish to narrow the study to one manageable group. The literature on media effects generally falls into one of two categories: some focus on esoteric issues of interest to the academic/ scholarly arena, while others target the general populous. This study offers the rare "blended" perspective, somewhat accessible to both groups of readers. Entman and Rojecki attempt to demonstrate the powerful effect media have on race relations as media help to shape and re-shape the culture we live in. The authors also want to influence media practitioners and viewers and hope to contribute to improvements in relations between Black and White racial groups in America. The book spans the fields of critical/ cultural studies as well as political science and other social sciences. The authors carefully and succinctly review cases and theoretical arguments about race relations, while they, in some instances, propose solutions for problems under review. Related and powerful insights animate the authors' analyses. First, they review and assess White attitudes and the new forms of racial differentiation present in the minds of White Americans and throughout media that reinforce White perceptions. Second, their use of national survey data and studies of White racial opinions help readers understand how Blacks came to occupy a "limbo" status in America and how that status affects both Blacks and Whites. Third, the authors show how media "content" actually leads to public ignorance about race relations and about social conditions. They argue, for example, that the public policy issue of affirmative action was distorted by media decisions and political concerns unrelated to the perceived value of affirmative action that, in reality, cut across racial lines. The authors focus not just on the content of television news and public affairs, but they probe television entertainment (networks and cable), the broad effects of media advertising, and the content of Hollywood's movie hits. …

The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America

The benefits of direct, personal contact with members of another group are well established empirically. This Special Issue complements that body of work by demonstrating the effects of various for...

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Improving intergroup relations through direct, extended and other forms of indirect contact:

The present meta-analysis tested the effectiveness of contact-based interventions for the reduction of ethnic prejudice. Up to now, a meta-analysis summarizing the results of real-world interventions that rest on the intergroup contact theory has been missing. We included evaluations of programs realizing direct (i.e., face-to-face) and/or indirect (i.e., extended or virtual) contact in real-world settings outside the lab. The interventions' effectiveness was tested shortly after their end (k = 123 comparisons, N = 11 371 participants) and with a delay of at least 1 month (k = 25, N = 1650). Our data show that contact interventions improve ethnic attitudes. Importantly, changes persist over time. Furthermore, not only direct but also indirect contact interventions are successful. In addition, contact programs are effective even in the context of a serious societal conflict (e.g., in the Middle East). Although changes are typically larger for ethnic majorities, there is an impact on minorities, too. Finally, contact interventions not only improve attitudes toward individuals involved in the program, their effects also generalize to outgroups as a whole. In sum, social psychology provides an intervention for prejudice reduction that can be successfully implemented in the practical field. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Can we really reduce ethnic prejudice outside the lab? A meta-analysis of direct and indirect contact interventions

Television has an opportunity to influence beliefs about groups with which individuals typically may have little direct social contact. This study describes a synthesis of the Contact Hypothesis and the concept of Parasocial Interaction to pose what we call the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis to test whether exposure to gay men on Will & Grace can influence attitudes toward gay men in general. Based on a study of 245 university students, this study examines the relationships among number and intimacy of gay social contacts, parasocial interaction, viewing frequency of Will & Grace, and scores on Herek's Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians scale. Increased viewing frequency and parasocial interaction were found to correlate with lower levels of sexual prejudice-a relationship that was most pronounced for those with the least amount of social contact with lesbians and gay men.

Can one TV show make a difference? Will & Grace and the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis.

This study examined the effects of viewing 10 episodes of the television series Six Feet Under to assess whether such programming could influence college students' attitudes about death and dying. Students were administered the Death Attitude Profile--Revised, the Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale, and the short version of the Threat Index, prior to and after viewing. Significant changes were found on a number of measures. These results are similar to the effects of didactic death education courses.

Can a television series change attitudes about death? a study of college students and six feet under

England Looks to the Future: The Cultural Forum Model and Doctor Who

Audiences can and do form parasocial relationships with media personalities. Media personalities, programs, and stations can use social media to enhance this relationship. More and more stations an...

Peter B. Gregg

Papers

The Parasocial Contact Hypothesis

Can one TV show make a difference? Will & Grace and the Parasocial Contact Hypothesis.

Can a television series change attitudes about death? a study of college students and six feet under

England Looks to the Future: The Cultural Forum Model and Doctor Who

Parasocial Breakup and Twitter: The Firing of Barb Abney