This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.

http://anthro.vancouver.wsu.edu/media/Course_files/anth-260-edward-h-hagen/acute-stressors-and-cortisol-responses-a-theoretical-integration-and-synthesis-of-laboratory-research-1.pdf

Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research.

https://bic.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Rossi_09_TMS%20safety%20review.pdf

Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research

The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire

This chapter addresses two questions; how big is the “gap” between intentions and behavior, and what psychological variables might be able to “bridge” the intention–behavior gap? A meta-analysis of meta-analyses is used to quantify the gap and a conceptual analysis of intention–behavior discrepancies is presented. Research is described on the extent to which four groups of variables—behavior type, intention type, properties of intention, and cognitive and personality variables—moderate intention–behavior relations. Finally, the scope of the intention construct is discussed in the light of recent evidence concerning the role of habits and automaticity in human behavior.

Intention–Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review

The present report meta-analyzes more than 300 empirical articles describing a relationship between psychological stress and parameters of the immune system in human participants. Acute stressors (lasting minutes) were associated with potentially adaptive upregulation of some parameters of natural immunity and downregulation of some functions of specific immunity. Brief naturalistic stressors (such as exams) tended to suppress cellular immunity while preserving humoral immunity. Chronic stressors were associated with suppression of both cellular and humoral measures. Effects of event sequences varied according to the kind of event (trauma vs. loss). Subjective reports of stress generally did not associate with immune change. In some cases, physical vulnerability as a function of age or disease also increased vulnerability to immune change during stressors.

/pdf/psychological-stress-and-the-human-immune-system-a-meta-3lp53rp4yz.pdf

Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry

The awakening cortisol response (ACR) is a discrete and distinctive part of the cortisol circadian cycle. In healthy adults salivary free cortisol concentrations increase by between 50 and 160% in the first 30 min immediately post-awakening (approximate average increase of 9 nmol/l, range 4-15 nmol/l, estimated to be equivalent to about three secretory episodes). However there are no agreed norms for the absolute concentrations of free cortisol in saliva either immediately post-awakening (range of 4.7-18.5 nmol/l) or 30 min post-awakening (range of 8.6-21.9 nmol/l). This review explores reasons for these discrepancies in normative data including confounding factors such as gender, age, awakening time, light and participant adherence. Although the physiological role of the ACR has not been clearly defined evidence is discussed that suggests it is under a distinct regulatory influence, different from the rest of the diurnal cortisol secretory cycle. Despite the difficulties associated with its measurement a range of studies have demonstrated an association between the ACR and psychosocial variables, stress and health. However it remains unclear whether positive affect and good health are consistently associated with larger or smaller awakening responses. It is early days in the search for the role and significance of the ACR. Its putative role in the regulation of physiological function across the day (e.g. the immune system) and its sensitivity to psychosocial variables make it a prime candidate as an intermediary linking mind and health.

Philip D. Evans

Papers

The awakening cortisol response: Methodological issues and significance

The cortisol awakening response: more than a measure of HPA axis function.

Exploration of the awakening cortisol response in relation to diurnal cortisol secretory activity.

Association between time of awakening and diurnal cortisol secretory activity.

The diurnal patterns of the adrenal steroids cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in relation to awakening.