Showing papers by "Roy F. Baumeister published in 2007"

The Strength Model of Self-Control

Abstract: Self-control is a central function of the self and an important key to success in life. The exertion of self-control appears to depend on a limited resource. Just as a muscle gets tired from exertion, acts of self-control cause short-term impairments (ego depletion) in subsequent self-control, even on unrelated tasks. Research has supported the strength model in the domains of eating, drinking, spending, sexuality, intelligent thought, making choices, and interpersonal behavior. Motivational or framing factors can temporarily block the deleterious effects of being in a state of ego depletion. Blood glucose is an important component of the energy.

How Emotion Shapes Behavior: Feedback, Anticipation, and Reflection, Rather Than Direct Causation

Abstract: Fear causes fleeing and thereby saves lives: this exemplifies a popular and common sense but increasingly untenable view that the direct causation of behavior is the primary function of emotion. Instead, the authors develop a theory of emotion as a feedback system whose influence on behavior is typically indirect. By providing feedback and stimulating retrospective appraisal of actions, conscious emotional states can promote learning and alter guidelines for future behavior. Behavior may also be chosen to pursue (or avoid) anticipated emotional outcomes. Rapid, automatic affective responses, in contrast to the full-blown conscious emotions, may inform cognition and behavioral choice and thereby help guide current behavior. The automatic affective responses may also remind the person of past emotional outcomes and provide useful guides as to what emotional outcomes may be anticipated in the present. To justify replacing the direct causation model with the feedback model, the authors review a large body of empirical findings.

Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior?

Abstract: Psychology calls itself the science of behavior, and the American Psychological Association's current "Decade of Behavior" was intended to increase awareness and appreciation of this aspect of the science. Yet some psychological subdisciplines have never directly studied behavior, and studies on behavior are dwindling rapidly in other subdisciplines. We discuss the eclipse of behavior in personality and social psychology, in which direct observation of behavior has been increasingly supplanted by introspective self-reports, hypothetical scenarios, and questionnaire ratings. We advocate a renewed commitment to including direct observation of behavior whenever possible and in at least a healthy minority of research projects.

Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: willpower is more than a metaphor.

Abstract: The present work suggests that self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source. Laboratory tests of self-control (i.e., the Stroop task, thought suppression, emotion regulation, attention control) and of social behaviors (i.e., helping behavior, coping with thoughts of death, stifling prejudice during an interracial interaction) showed that (a) acts of self-control reduced blood glucose levels, (b) low levels of blood glucose after an initial self-control task predicted poor performance on a subsequent self-control task, and (c) initial acts of self-control impaired performance on subsequent self-control tasks, but consuming a glucose drink eliminated these impairments. Self-control requires a certain amount of glucose to operate unimpaired. A single act of self-control causes glucose to drop below optimal levels, thereby impairing subsequent attempts at self-control.

Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior.

Abstract: In 7 experiments, the authors manipulated social exclusion by telling people that they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them. Social exclusion caused a substantial reduction in prosocial behavior. Socially excluded people donated less money to a student fund, were unwilling to volunteer for further lab experiments, were less helpful after a mishap, and cooperated less in a mixed-motive game with another student. The results did not vary by cost to the self or by recipient of the help, and results remained significant when the experimenter was unaware of condition. The effect was mediated by feelings of empathy for another person but was not mediated by mood, state self-esteem, belongingness, trust, control, or self-awareness. The implication is that rejection temporarily interferes with emotional responses, thereby impairing the capacity for empathic understanding of others, and as a result, any inclination to help or cooperate with them is undermined.

Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the "porcupine problem."

Abstract: Evidence from 6 experiments supports the social reconnection hypothesis, which posits that the experience of social exclusion increases the motivation to forge social bonds with new sources of potential affiliation. Threat of social exclusion led participants to express greater interest in making new friends, to increase their desire to work with others, to form more positive impressions of novel social targets, and to assign greater rewards to new interaction partners. Findings also suggest potential boundary conditions to the social reconnection hypothesis. Excluded individuals did not seem to seek reconnection with the specific perpetrators of exclusion or with novel partners with whom no face-to-face interaction was anticipated. Furthermore, fear of negative evaluation moderated responses to exclusion such that participants low in fear of negative evaluation responded to new interaction partners in an affiliative fashion, whereas participants high in fear of negative evaluation did not.

Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation

Abstract: Motivation is underappr eciated in self-r egulation theories (as is tr ue in social personality psychology at large). This paper reviews the role of motivation in the context of the strength, or limited-resource, model of self-control in several domains. Sacrificing one desire in order to pursue another is more difficult when the incipient response is strongly motivated, a notion that highlights the struggle between urges and restraints. A reduction in ego resources can be temporarily overcome by strong motivation – nevertheless, ego depletion is not solely a loss of motivation: Recent experiments indicate that regulatory resources are rooted in physical energy stores. Motivational conflicts, especially the clash between selfish motives and behaviors that promote social acceptance, set the stage for the necessity of self-regulation and the circumstances in which ego depletion is most likely. Self-regulation is the self ’s capacity for altering its behaviors. It greatly increases the flexibility and adaptability of human behavior, enabling people to adjust their actions to a remarkably broad range of social and situational demands. It is an important basis for the popular conception of free will and for socially desirable behavior. It provides benefits to the individual and to society, and indeed good self-control seems to contribute to a great many desirable outcomes, including task performance, school and work success, popularity, mental health and adjustment, and good interpersonal relationships (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1994; Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Mischel, Shoda, & P eake, 1988; Shoda, Mischel, & P eake, 1990; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004;Wolfe & Johnson, 1995). Motivation is underappreciated in psychology generally, no doubt partly because the cognitive revolution of recent decades has induced the majority of r esearchers to think in co gnitive rather than motivational terms. Motivation’s role in self-regulation has been similarly underestimated. This article seeks to remedy that deficiency. It will examine the multiple ways that motivation is relevant to self-regulation. The relevance to self-regulation spans a wide range, from the confluence of motivation and self-regulation (as in the motivation to engage in self-regulation) to their conflict (as when self-regulation is used to restrain motivation).

The Physiology of Willpower: Linking Blood Glucose to Self-Control:

Abstract: Past research indicates that self-control relies on some sort of limited energy source This review suggests that blood glucose is one important part of the energy source of self-control Acts of self-control deplete relatively large amounts of glucose Self-control failures are more likely when glucose is low or cannot be mobilized effectively to the brain (ie, when insulin is low or insensitive) Restoring glucose to a sufficient level typically improves self-control Numerous self-control behaviors fit this pattern, including controlling attention, regulating emotions, quitting smoking, coping with stress, resisting impulsivity, and refraining from criminal and aggressive behavior Alcohol reduces glucose throughout the brain and body and likewise impairs many forms of self-control Furthermore, self-control failure is most likely during times of the day when glucose is used least effectively Self-control thus appears highly susceptible to glucose Self-control benefits numerous social and interpersonal processes Glucose might therefore be related to a broad range of social behavior

Self-regulation and the executive function: The self as controlling agent.

Abstract: A man squanders his money on gambling. A woman beats her child. A drunk driver causes a crash that destroys three cars and injures several people. A student postpones studying until the night before the test and gets a bad grade. A young couple engages in unprotected sex and creates an unwanted pregnancy. A delinquent shoots an acquaintance during an argument. A dieter eats seven donuts and a pint of ice cream at one sitting. An athlete trains off and on for a year without any improvement in performance. A girl breaks a promise and betrays a friend's confidence. An old man again neglects to take his daily dose of insulin and goes into diabetic shock. What these disparate events have in common is failure of self-regulation. When self-regulation works well, it enables people to alter their behavior so as to conform to rules, plans, promises, ideals, and other standards. When it fails, any one of a broad range of human problems and misfortunes can arise. Self-regulation is thus a key to success in human life and, when it falls short, a contributing cause that helps explain many forms of human suffering. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the psychology of self-regulation. We shall review what it is, its importance, how it functions, how it fits into the broader context of human psychological functioning, and what some of its principal applications are. To appreciate the importance of self-regulation, it is necessary to consider both practical and theoretical implications. The practical ones were anticipated in the opening paragraph of this chapter, but they can be stated more systematically as follows: Most of the social and personal problems that afflict people in modern western society have some element of self-regulatory failure at their root. This is not to say that better self-regulation would alone solve all society's problems — but it would probably go a long way toward that end. Perhaps the problems that most obviously revolve around self-control failure are those of impulse control. Drug and alcohol addiction has multiple determinants, but to Self-regulation and executive function 3 the extent that people can regulate their consumption of these problematic substances, they will be less vulnerable to addiction. Many of the problems associated with sexual behavior are fully preventable, if only people would control themselves sufficiently to minimize risks. These include the paradoxical epidemic of unwanted and out-of-wedlock pregnancy (paradoxical …

Encyclopedia of social psychology

Abstract: Not long ago, social psychology was a small field consisting of creative, energetic researchers bent on trying to study a few vexing problems in normal adult human behaviour with rigorous scientific methods. In a few short decades, the field has blossomed into a major intellectual force, with thousands of researchers worldwide exploring a stunningly diverse set of fascinating phenomena with an impressive arsenal of research methods and ever-more carefully honed theories. The Encyclopedia of Social Psychology is the first resource to present state-of-the-art research and ready-to-use facts from this fascinating field. These two volumes include more than 600 entries chosen by a diverse team of experts to comprise an exhaustive list of the most important concepts. The Encyclopedia is written for students who may be encountering concepts such as social loafing, deindividuation, base rate fallacy, ego depletion and self-handicapping for the first time and want a simple, clear, jargon-free explanation of what they mean. Key Themes " Action Control " Antisocial Behaviors " Attitude " Culture " Emotions " Evolution " Groups " Health " History " Influence " Interpersonal Relationships " Judgment and Decision Making " Methods " Personality " Prejudice " Problem Behaviors " Prosocial Behaviors " Self " Social Cognition " Subdisciplines

Social Psychology and Human Nature

Abstract: You are a member of a social world on a planet containing about 7 billion people. This social world is filled with paradox, mystery, suspense, and outright absurdity. Explore how social psychology can help you make sense of your own social world with this engaging and accessible book. Roy F. Baumeister and Brad J. Bushman's SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND HUMAN NATURE can help you make sense of the always fascinating and sometimes bizarre and baffling diversity of human behavior-and it's also just plain interesting to learn about how and why people act the way they do.

Thwarting the Need to Belong: Understanding the Interpersonal and Inner Effects of Social Exclusion

Abstract: The need to belong is a powerful motivational basis for interpersonal behavior, and it is thwarted by social exclusion and rejection. Laboratory work has uncovered a destructive set of consequences of being socially excluded, such as increased aggressiveness and reduced helpfulness toward new targets. Rejected persons do, however, exhibit a cautious interest in finding new friends. Theory and intuition associate social exclusion with emotional distress, but laboratory research finds instead that the first response is a reduced sensitivity to pain and an emotional insensitivity that hampers empathy and may contribute to a variety of interpersonal behaviors. Self-regulation and intelligent thought are also impaired as a direct result of being rejected.

Increasing Self-Regulatory Strength Can Reduce the Depleting Effect of Suppressing Stereotypes

Abstract: Three longitudinal studies and one correlational study tested the hypothesis that increasing self-regulatory strength by regular self-regulatory exercise would reduce the intrapsychic costs of suppressing stereotypes. Participants tried to resist using stereotypes while describing or talking to a stimulus person. Participants whose habitual motivation to suppress stereotypes was low exhibited impaired Stroop and anagram performance after the suppression task, presumably because of self-regulatory depletion (i.e., a reduction of self-regulatory strength following prior use). Two weeks of self-regulation exercises (such as using one’s nondominant hand or refraining from cursing) eliminated this effect. These findings indicate that self-regulatory exercise can improve resistance to self-regulatory depletion and, consequently, people can suppress stereotypes without suffering subsequent decrements in task performance.

Replenishing connectedness: Reminders of social activity reduce aggression after social exclusion

Abstract: Previous research found that social rejection leads to increased aggression. How can this aggressive behaviour be prevented? Four experiments demonstrate that reminders of social activity reduce aggression after social exclusion. A brief, friendly social connection with an experimenter (versus a neutral interaction) reduced aggression after social rejection. A traditional mood induction had no effect on aggressive behaviour, showing that an activity must be social to be effective. Participants who wrote about a family member, a friend or a favourite celebrity were also not aggressive after rejection. The effect was mediated by trust in other people but not by state self-esteem or mood. Rejected participants who have an alternative source of social connection eschew the increased aggression usually displayed after social exclusion.

Relating mindfulness and self-regulatory processes.

Abstract: Brown, Ryan, and Creswell (this issue) summarize the recent surge in mindfulness research and practices, and they propose methods for developing a further understanding of the mindfulness phenomeno...

From Terror to Joy: Automatic Tuning to Positive Affective Information Following Mortality Salience

Abstract: Reminders of death tend to produce strong cognitive and behavioral responses, but little or no emotional response. In three experiments, mortality salience produced an automatic coping response that involved tuning to positive emotional information. Subjects showed increased accessibility of positive emotional information (Experiments 1 and 3) and gave more weight to positive emotion in their judgments of word similarity (Experiment 2) after contemplating death than after thinking about dental pain. This automatic coping response was found both after a delay (Experiments 1 and 2) and directly after the mortality-salience manipulation (Experiment 3), which suggests that the coping process begins immediately. Tuning to positive emotional information in response to mortality salience was unconscious and counterintuitive (Experiment 3). These findings shed light on the coping process that ensues immediately following mortality salience and help to explain why a delay is often necessary to produce effects in line with terror management theory.

Feeling Duped: Emotional, Motivational, and Cognitive Aspects of Being Exploited by Others

Abstract: Feeling duped is an aversive emotional response to the perception of having been taken advantage of in a interpersonal transaction (primarily those involving economic exchange), partly as a result of one's own decisions. The actual likelihood of being duped, as well as the heightened vigilance for it, should increase as a function of opportunity (e.g., information asymmetry that gives one side a big advantage in knowledge) and motivation (e.g., an exceptionally huge payoff may make it worth defrauding a long-term business partner). Being duped produces an aversive self-conscious emotion with a threat of self-blame. There appears to be stable individual differences in the motivation (called sugrophobia) to avoid being a sucker. High sugrophobes will be vigilant and skeptical of potential deals. Low sugrophobes may not even realize in some instances that they were duped. The aversive reaction to feeling duped stimulates counterfactual ruminations that may intensify sugrophobia but also aids in extracting useful lessons.

Attempting to improve the academic performance of struggling college students by bolstering their self-esteem: an intervention that backfired

Abstract: Theory and prior research suggest that (a) a positive sense of self–worth and (b) perceived control over one's outcomes facilitate constructive responses to negative outcomes. We therefore predicted that encouraging students to maintain their sense of self–worth and/or construe their academic outcomes as controllable would promote achievement. In a field experiment, low–performing students in a psychology class were randomly assigned to receive, each week, review questions, review questions plus self–esteem bolstering, or review questions plus exhortations to assume responsibility and control. Contrary to predictions, the D and F students got worse as a result of self–esteem bolstering and students in the other conditions did not change. These findings raise ethical and practical questions about the widespread practice of bolstering self–esteem in the hope of improving academic performance.

Deciding Without Resources: Psychological Depletion and Choice in Context

Abstract: Consumer choices are a result of an interplay of two systems: fast and intuitive thinking (System 1) and more deliberative reasoning (System 2). The present research examines the implication of the interplay between the two systems for context effects in choice by exploring the consequences of resource depletion. Building on a substantial body of psychological literature that points to one underlying resource used in self-regulation and decision-making, this paper demonstrates that resource depletion has a systematic influence on choices. Specifically, we demonstrate that resource depletion enhances the role of intuitive System 1 influences by impairing the effortful and deliberate overriding role of System 2. In five experiments, we find that resource depletion increases the share of reference-dependent choices, decreases the compromise effect, magnifies the attraction effect, and increases choice deferral. The results shed light on both the mechanism underlying context effects on choices and the scope of the depleted resource.

What's So Funny About Not Having Money? The Effects of Power on Laughter

Abstract: Two studies tested the hypothesis that occupying a position of low power increases the likelihood of laughter, presumably as a means of gaining friends and supporters. In Study 1, participants laughed more at an interviewer's jokes when the interviewer controlled their cash rewards than in the absence of monetary contingencies. Study 2 found that low-power participants (manipulated again by expecting that someone else would decide their cash rewards) laughed more than high-power participants even when they were alone. Low power also increased laughing at a fellow low-power coworker. These findings suggest that low power motivates interest in making friends and hence increases behaviors that promote social bonding.

Introduction to Special Issue: Emotion and Decision Making:

Abstract: It is a perennial debate in the social sciences: Are emotions the bane of optimal behavior, or do emotions contribute invaluably to the process of decision making to improve human outcomes? The debate continues, in part because both sides can point to rigorous data and important theories that support their claims. The articles in this special issue advance both sides of that debate and, in doing so, help point the way toward a more integrative solution. The papers in this special issue approach the topics of emotion and decision making as a set, with an eye toward integrating the role of emotion in decision making or the emotional consequences of decision making. The papers in this special issue not only introduce readers to core concepts essential to choice and emotion, but also develop sophisticated integrative models. These models promise to advance the fields of psychology, marketing, and economics toward a joint science involving the complex interplay between emotions and decisions.