Proteolytic enzymes are ubiquitous in occurrence, being found in all living organisms, and are essential for cell growth and differentiation. The extracellular proteases are of commercial value and find multiple applications in various industrial sectors. Although there are many microbial sources available for producing proteases, only a few are recognized as commercial producers. A good number of bacterial alkaline proteases are commercially available, such as subtilisin Carlsberg, subtilisin BPN′ and Savinase, with their major application as detergent enzymes. However, mutations have led to newer protease preparations with improved catalytic efficiency and better stability towards temperature, oxidizing agents and changing wash conditions. Many newer preparations, such as Durazym, Maxapem and Purafect, have been produced, using techniques of site-directed mutagenesis and/or random mutagenesis. Directed evolution has also paved the way to a great variety of subtilisin variants with better specificities and stability. Molecular imprinting through conditional lyophilization is coming up to match molecular approaches in protein engineering. There are many possibilities for modifying biocatalysts through molecular approaches. However, the search for microbial sources of novel alkaline proteases in natural diversity through the "metagenome" approach is targeting a hitherto undiscovered wealth of molecular diversity. This fascinating development will allow the biotechnological exploitation of uncultured microorganisms, which by far outnumber the species accessible by cultivation, regardless of the habitat. In this review, we discuss the types and sources of proteases, protease yield-improvement methods, the use of new methods for developing novel proteases and applications of alkaline proteases in industrial sectors, with an overview on the use of alkaline proteases in the detergent industry.

Bacterial alkaline proteases: molecular approaches and industrial applications

Microbial alkaline proteases: From a bioindustrial viewpoint

The term “alkaliphile” is used for microorganisms that grow optimally or very well at pH values above 9 but cannot grow or grow only slowly at the near-neutral pH value of 6.5. Alkaliphiles include prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and archaea. Many different taxa are represented among the alkaliphiles, and some of these have been proposed as new taxa. Alkaliphiles can be isolated from normal environments such as garden soil, although viable counts of alkaliphiles are higher in samples from alkaline environments. The cell surface may play a key role in keeping the intracellular pH value in the range between 7 and 8.5, allowing alkaliphiles to thrive in alkaline environments, although adaptation mechanisms have not yet been clarified. Alkaliphiles have made a great impact in industrial applications. Biological detergents contain alkaline enzymes, such as alkaline cellulases and/or alkaline proteases, that have been produced from alkaliphiles. The current proportion of total world enzyme production destined for the laundry detergent market exceeds 60%. Another important application is the industrial production of cyclodextrin by alkaline cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferase. This enzyme has reduced the production cost and paved the way for cyclodextrin use in large quantities in foodstuffs, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. It has also been reported that alkali-treated wood pulp could be biologically bleached by xylanases produced by alkaliphiles. Other applications of various aspects of alkaliphiles are also discussed.

Alkaliphiles: Some Applications of Their Products for Biotechnology

Microbial keratinases have become biotechnologically important since they target the hydrolysis of highly rigid, strongly cross-linked structural polypeptide “keratin” recalcitrant to the commonly known proteolytic enzymes trypsin, pepsin and papain. These enzymes are largely produced in the presence of keratinous substrates in the form of hair, feather, wool, nail, horn etc. during their degradation. The complex mechanism of keratinolysis involves cooperative action of sulfitolytic and proteolytic systems. Keratinases are robust enzymes with a wide temperature and pH activity range and are largely serine or metallo proteases. Sequence homologies of keratinases indicate their relatedness to subtilisin family of serine proteases. They stand out among proteases since they attack the keratin residues and hence find application in developing cost-effective feather by-products for feed and fertilizers. Their application can also be extended to detergent and leather industries where they serve as specialty enzymes. Besides, they also find application in wool and silk cleaning; in the leather industry, better dehairing potential of these enzymes has led to the development of greener hair-saving dehairing technology and personal care products. Further, their prospective application in the challenging field of prion degradation would revolutionize the protease world in the near future.

Microbial keratinases and their prospective applications: an overview.

Keratinases are exciting proteolytic enzymes that display the capability to degrade the insoluble protein keratin. These enzymes are produced by diverse microorganisms belonging to the Eucarya, Bacteria, and Archea domains. Keratinases display a great diversity in their biochemical and biophysical properties. Most keratinases are optimally active at neutral to alkaline pH and 40–60°C, but examples of microbial keratinolysis at alkalophilic and thermophilic conditions have been well documented. Several keratinases have been associated to the subtilisin family of serine-type proteases by analysis of their protein sequences. Studies with specific substrates and inhibitors indicated that keratinases are often serine or metalloproteases with preference for hydrophobic and aromatic residues at the P1 position. Keratinolytic enzymes have several current and potential applications in agroindustrial, pharmaceutical, and biomedical fields. Their use in biomass conversion into biofuels may address the increasing concern on energy conservation and recycling.

Biochemical features of microbial keratinases and their production and applications.

The keratinase produced by Bacillus licheniformis PWD-1 was induced by feather powder. Maximal enzyme production could be achieved by culturing in a medium containing 1% hammer-milled feather powder (100 mesh) at 45 degrees C for 30 h. Maximal growth of PWD-1 was achieved at 50 degrees C, and maximal enzyme induction was at 45 degrees C. The molecular mass and isoelectric point of this enzyme were 31.4 kDa and 8.5, respectively. This enzyme was stable from pH 5 to 12. The optimal reaction pHs for feather powder and casein were 8.5 and 10.5 to 11.5, respectively. The optimal reaction temperature was 50 degrees C to 55 degrees C. The relative activity of this enzyme toward casein, feather powder, keratin, elastin, and collagen was 100:52:41:18:7, and 100:56:32:3 for Suc-AAPL-pNA, Suc-AAPF-pNA, Suc-AAPM-pNA, and Suc-AAVA-pNA (Suc, succinyl; pNA, p-nitrophenylanilide).

Production and characterization of keratinase of a feather-degrading Bacillus licheniformis PWD-1

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jds.2022.07.017

Shu-Wen Cheng

Papers

Production and characterization of keratinase of a feather-degrading Bacillus licheniformis PWD-1

Effect of thermocycling-induced stress on properties of orthodontic NiTi wires