What will 5G be? What it will not be is an incremental advance on 4G. The previous four generations of cellular technology have each been a major paradigm shift that has broken backward compatibility. Indeed, 5G will need to be a paradigm shift that includes very high carrier frequencies with massive bandwidths, extreme base station and device densities, and unprecedented numbers of antennas. However, unlike the previous four generations, it will also be highly integrative: tying any new 5G air interface and spectrum together with LTE and WiFi to provide universal high-rate coverage and a seamless user experience. To support this, the core network will also have to reach unprecedented levels of flexibility and intelligence, spectrum regulation will need to be rethought and improved, and energy and cost efficiencies will become even more critical considerations. This paper discusses all of these topics, identifying key challenges for future research and preliminary 5G standardization activities, while providing a comprehensive overview of the current literature, and in particular of the papers appearing in this special issue.

What Will 5G Be

The global bandwidth shortage facing wireless carriers has motivated the exploration of the underutilized millimeter wave (mm-wave) frequency spectrum for future broadband cellular communication networks. There is, however, little knowledge about cellular mm-wave propagation in densely populated indoor and outdoor environments. Obtaining this information is vital for the design and operation of future fifth generation cellular networks that use the mm-wave spectrum. In this paper, we present the motivation for new mm-wave cellular systems, methodology, and hardware for measurements and offer a variety of measurement results that show 28 and 38 GHz frequencies can be used when employing steerable directional antennas at base stations and mobile devices.

Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications for 5G Cellular: It Will Work!

Millimeter wave (mmWave) signals experience orders-of-magnitude more pathloss than the microwave signals currently used in most wireless applications and all cellular systems. MmWave systems must therefore leverage large antenna arrays, made possible by the decrease in wavelength, to combat pathloss with beamforming gain. Beamforming with multiple data streams, known as precoding, can be used to further improve mmWave spectral efficiency. Both beamforming and precoding are done digitally at baseband in traditional multi-antenna systems. The high cost and power consumption of mixed-signal devices in mmWave systems, however, make analog processing in the RF domain more attractive. This hardware limitation restricts the feasible set of precoders and combiners that can be applied by practical mmWave transceivers. In this paper, we consider transmit precoding and receiver combining in mmWave systems with large antenna arrays. We exploit the spatial structure of mmWave channels to formulate the precoding/combining problem as a sparse reconstruction problem. Using the principle of basis pursuit, we develop algorithms that accurately approximate optimal unconstrained precoders and combiners such that they can be implemented in low-cost RF hardware. We present numerical results on the performance of the proposed algorithms and show that they allow mmWave systems to approach their unconstrained performance limits, even when transceiver hardware constraints are considered.

Spatially Sparse Precoding in Millimeter Wave MIMO Systems

Intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) is a revolutionary and transformative technology for achieving spectrum and energy efficient wireless communication cost-effectively in the future. Specifically, an IRS consists of a large number of low-cost passive elements each being able to reflect the incident signal independently with an adjustable phase shift so as to collaboratively achieve three-dimensional (3D) passive beamforming without the need of any transmit radio-frequency (RF) chains. In this paper, we study an IRS-aided single-cell wireless system where one IRS is deployed to assist in the communications between a multi-antenna access point (AP) and multiple single-antenna users. We formulate and solve new problems to minimize the total transmit power at the AP by jointly optimizing the transmit beamforming by active antenna array at the AP and reflect beamforming by passive phase shifters at the IRS, subject to users’ individual signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) constraints. Moreover, we analyze the asymptotic performance of IRS’s passive beamforming with infinitely large number of reflecting elements and compare it to that of the traditional active beamforming/relaying. Simulation results demonstrate that an IRS-aided MIMO system can achieve the same rate performance as a benchmark massive MIMO system without using IRS, but with significantly reduced active antennas/RF chains. We also draw useful insights into optimally deploying IRS in future wireless systems.

Intelligent Reflecting Surface Enhanced Wireless Network via Joint Active and Passive Beamforming

The vision of next generation 5G wireless communications lies in providing very high data rates (typically of Gbps order), extremely low latency, manifold increase in base station capacity, and significant improvement in users’ perceived quality of service (QoS), compared to current 4G LTE networks. Ever increasing proliferation of smart devices, introduction of new emerging multimedia applications, together with an exponential rise in wireless data (multimedia) demand and usage is already creating a significant burden on existing cellular networks. 5G wireless systems, with improved data rates, capacity, latency, and QoS are expected to be the panacea of most of the current cellular networks’ problems. In this survey, we make an exhaustive review of wireless evolution toward 5G networks. We first discuss the new architectural changes associated with the radio access network (RAN) design, including air interfaces, smart antennas, cloud and heterogeneous RAN. Subsequently, we make an in-depth survey of underlying novel mm-wave physical layer technologies, encompassing new channel model estimation, directional antenna design, beamforming algorithms, and massive MIMO technologies. Next, the details of MAC layer protocols and multiplexing schemes needed to efficiently support this new physical layer are discussed. We also look into the killer applications, considered as the major driving force behind 5G. In order to understand the improved user experience, we provide highlights of new QoS, QoE, and SON features associated with the 5G evolution. For alleviating the increased network energy consumption and operating expenditure, we make a detail review on energy awareness and cost efficiency. As understanding the current status of 5G implementation is important for its eventual commercialization, we also discuss relevant field trials, drive tests, and simulation experiments. Finally, we point out major existing research issues and identify possible future research directions.

Next Generation 5G Wireless Networks: A Comprehensive Survey

Visible light communication refers to shortrange optical wireless communication using visible light spectrum from 380 to 780 nm. Enabled by recent advances in LED technology, IEEE 802.15.7 supports high-data-rate visible light communication up to 96 Mb/s by fast modulation of optical light sources which may be dimmed during their operation. IEEE 802.15.7 provides dimming adaptable mechanisms for flicker-free high-data-rate visible light communication.

IEEE 802.15.7 visible light communication: modulation schemes and dimming support

One embodiment of the present invention is a system including: (a) plural virtualization systems configured in a cluster; (b) storage accessible to each virtualization system of the cluster, wherein for each virtual machine operative in a virtualization system of the cluster, the storage maintains a representation of virtual machine state that includes at least a description of a hardware system virtualized and an image of virtualized memory state for the virtual machine; and (c) a failover system that, responsive to an interruption of, or on, a particular one of the virtualization systems, transitions at least one affected virtual machine to another virtualization system of the cluster and resumes computations of the transitioned virtual machine based on state encoded by a corresponding one of the virtual machine states represented in the storage

High Availability Virtual Machine Cluster

Millimeter wave (mmWave) systems must overcome heavy signal attenuation to support high-throughput wireless communication links. The small wavelength in mmWave systems enables beamforming using large antenna arrays to combat path loss with directional transmission. Beamforming with multiple data streams, known as precoding, can be used to achieve even higher performance. Both beamforming and precoding are done at baseband in traditional microwave systems. In mmWave systems, however, the high cost of mixed-signal and radio frequency chains (RF) makes operating in the passband and analog domains attractive. This hardware limitation places additional constraints on precoder design. In this paper, we consider single user beamforming and precoding in mmWave systems with large arrays. We exploit the structure of mmWave channels to formulate the precoder design problem as a sparsity constrained least squares problem. Using the principle of basis pursuit, we develop a precoding algorithm that approximates the optimal unconstrained precoder using a low dimensional basis representation that can be efficiently implemented in RF hardware. We present numerical results on the performance of the proposed algorithm and show that it allows mmWave systems to approach waterfilling capacity.

Low complexity precoding for large millimeter wave MIMO systems

Millimeter wave (mmWave) systems must overcome the heavy attenuation at high frequency to support high-throughput wireless communication. The small wavelength in mmWave systems enables beamforming using large antenna arrays to combat path loss with large array gain. Beamforming in traditional microwave systems is often done at baseband for maximum flexibility. Such baseband processing requires a dedicated transceiver chain per antenna element. The high cost of radio frequency (RF) chains in mmWave systems, however, makes supporting each antenna with a dedicated RF chain expensive. This mismatch between the number of antennas and transceiver chains makes baseband processing infeasible; thus mmWave systems typically rely on a traditional approach known as beam steering which can be done at RF using inexpensive phase shifters. Unlike baseband precoding, however, traditional beam steering is not explicitly designed to achieve the capacity of the mmWave channel. In this paper, we consider both beamforming and multi-stream precoding in single user systems with large mmWave antenna arrays at both transmitter and receiver. Using a realistic channel model, we show that the unconstrained capacity-achieving precoding solutions converge to simple beam steering solutions. Therefore, in large mmWave systems, no rate loss is incurred by adopting the traditional lower-complexity solution.

Sridhar Rajagopal

Papers

Spatially Sparse Precoding in Millimeter Wave MIMO Systems

IEEE 802.15.7 visible light communication: modulation schemes and dimming support

High Availability Virtual Machine Cluster

Low complexity precoding for large millimeter wave MIMO systems

The capacity optimality of beam steering in large millimeter wave MIMO systems