Susan L. Sakmar

Bio: Susan L. Sakmar is an academic researcher from University of San Francisco. The author has contributed to research in topics: Energy security & Liquefied natural gas. The author has an hindex of 8, co-authored 17 publications receiving 127 citations.

The Global Shale Gas Initiative: Will the United States Be the Role Model for the Development of Shale Gas Around the World?

Abstract: This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the legal, policy, and environmental challenges associated with the development of shale gas in the United States through the lens of the Global Shale Gas Initiative (GSGI) which was launched by the U.S. Department of State in April 2010 as part of an effort to promote global energy security and climate security around the world. Recognizing that shale gas development in the U.S. had been a “terrific boon” that many countries would want to replicate, the GSGI seeks to share information about the “umbrella of laws and regulations” that exist in the United States to ensure that shale gas development is “done safely and efficiently.” Part I of this article discusses the hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling technology that is crucial to shale gas development. Part II highlights the prevailing view that shale gas is an “energy game changer” that could dramatically impact global energy supplies, energy security, climate change mitigation, and geopolitics. Part III discusses the GSGI as well as other U.S. efforts and initiatives to help countries around the world develop their own shale gas resources. Part IV addresses the various environmental concerns that have been raised related to the development of shale gas in the United States. Part V discusses the federal and state laws and regulations affecting shale gas development in the United States, including an analysis of proposed legislation to further regulate the industry and a recent EPA study on the environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing on underground sources of drinking water (USDW).

The Global Shale Gas Initiative: Will the United States Be the Role Model for the Development of Shale Gas around the World?

Abstract: I. INTRODUCTION II. OVERVIEW OF UNCONVENTIONAL GAS DEVELOPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY A. Types of Natural Gas Reservoirs B. Hydraulic Fracturing and Horizontal Drilling C. Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids III. SHALE GAS: THE GLOBAL ENERGY "GAME CHANGER" A. Shale Gas Development and Resources in the United States B. Shale Gas Development and Resources in Canada C. Shale Gas Development and Resources in the Rest of the World D. Challenges to Developing Global Unconventional Gas IV. THE GSGI: WILL THE UNITED STATES BE A MODEL FOR GLOBAL SHALE GAS DEVELOPMENT? V. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SHALE GAS DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES A. Water Contamination Concerns B. Water Quantity and Flowback Concerns C. The EXXON/XTO Merger VI. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR SHALE GAS DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES A. The Safe Drinking Water Act B. Leaf v. EPA C. The FRAC Act D. EPA Study E. Other Congressional Actions: Disclosure of Frac Fluid Chemicals F. State Regulations and Actions Pending Potential Federal Action VII. CONCLUSION I. INTRODUCTION One of the most promising recent developments in the energy sector has been the dramatic increase in the production of natural gas from shale formations, or shale gas. (1) Although experts have known for years about the vast deposits of shale gas found throughout the world, technological difficulties and the high costs of producing shale gas made it impractical to consider as a serious energy source. (2) However, recent technological innovations combining hydraulic fracturing (also known as "fracing") and horizontal drilling technologies (3) have resulted in a tremendous increase in shale gas production in the United States over the past five years. (4) This boom seems likely to continue with leading energy experts proclaiming shale gas an energy "game changer" that will "revolutionize" global gas markets and help bridge the gap between conventional resources and the development of renewable energy sources. (5) Thus far, the United States has been the undisputed leader in unlocking the vast tracts of gas-bearing shale found throughout the lower forty-eight states, but Canada is also emerging as a potential major source of shale gas. (6) The so-called "shale gale," the strong wind blown by the technological advances in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, is not limited to North America. (7) Because shale formations exist in almost every region of the world, the potential for shale gas development is enormous and global in scope. (8) Because hydraulic fracturing is an essential part of developing global shale gas resources, (9) it is imperative that the industry ensures the process is safe and environmentally sound before it utilizes the technology in new areas of the world. (10) In the United States, numerous concerns have been raised about the potential environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing, with a particular focus on the injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids in wells located near drinking water sources, (11) the quantity of water used in the process, and the disposal of waste or flowback water. (12) The U.S. response to these concerns will be closely watched around the world, and a well-crafted regulatory regime could serve as a model for foreign countries looking to responsibly develop their shale gas resources. (13) So far, Congress has introduced legislation known as the "FRAC Act" that, if passed, will place stricter regulations on the shale gas industry. (14) Additionally, in March of 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced that it would conduct a comprehensive research study to investigate the potential adverse impacts that hydraulic fracturing may have on water quality and public health. (15) In the meantime, the hydraulic fracturing process continues to draw criticism from environmentalists. …

Preface and Introduction - Energy for the 21st Century: Opportunities and Challenges for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Abstract: Liquefied natural gas (LNG) – natural gas that has been cooled until it forms a transportable liquid – is the fastest growing segment of the energy market and its role as the 'glue' linking global gas markets is set to intensify as policymakers around the world are increasingly looking to natural gas and LNG to meet the twin challenges of energy security and climate change. This book provides critical insights into the opportunities and challenges LNG faces as the fuel of choice for the 21st century. The book discusses all aspects of the dynamic LNG business, including the LNG value chain, the evolution from regional trade to a more globalized LNG market, LNG pricing, contracts and trade, and emerging issues such as the impact of shale gas on global gas markets, the prospects for U.S. and Canadian LNG exports, the role of floating LNG (FLNG) and the potential role of the Gas Exporting Countries Forum (GECF).Professor Sakmar contextualizes the discussion about the importance of LNG with an analysis of why the 21st century will be the ‘golden age’ of natural gas with LNG as the ‘glue’ linking global gas markets.

Sustainable Development and Environmental Challenges in The MENA Region: Accounting for The Environment In The 21st Century

Abstract: The MENA Region faces a range of challenges to its long-term security and prosperity in the 21st century. Although many of the Region’s economic challenges have been widely analyzed, environmental challenges are rarely taken into consideration in the process of formulating economic policies in the MENA Region. This paper begins to address the major gaps in knowledge about the economics of the environment in the MENA Region and will analyze the most current literature and trends regarding sustainable resource management for the 21st century. This paper proposes a framework for the discussion of the economic ramification of various environmental issues facing the MENA Region. It also presents various environmental accounting systems and indicators that may be useful for the MENA Region to implement in order to manage these issues more effectively. Of particular relevance is the establishment of environmental accounts as set forth under the System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA), which is expected to become an international statistical standard for integrated economic and environmental accounting using concepts, definitions and classifications of the System of National Accounts (SNA). The paper then proposes the Ecological Footprint as an additional tool for resource and ecosystem service accounting. The Ecological Footprint is a resource accounting tool that measures how much productive area it takes to produce what a population consumes and absorb its waste, using prevailing technology. It compares this to the available biocapacity of the world or each country. The paper concludes by recognizing that given the complexity of the concept of sustainable development and measuring what counts for the well-being of both present and future generations, it is evident that robust accounting tools and indicators are needed for the 21st century. While many of these tools already exist and can be found in the SEEA and Ecological Footprint, more analysis is needed on the areas of overlap and potential integration of these two systems.

Hydraulic Fracturing 101: What Every Representative, Environmentalist, Regulator, Reporter, Investor, University Researcher, Neighbor and Engineer Should Know About Estimating Frac Risk and Improving Frac Performance in Unconventional Gas and Oil Wells

Abstract: Identification of risk, the potential for occurrence of an event and impact of that event, is the first step in improving a process by ranking risk elements and controlling potential harm from occurrence of a detrimental event. Hydraulic Fracturing has become a hot environmental discussion topic and a target of media articles and University studies during development of gas shales near populated areas. The furor over fracturing and frac waste disposal was largely driven by lack of chemical disclosure and the pre2008 laws of some states. The spectacular increase in North American natural gas reserves created by shale gas development makes shale gas a disruptive technology, threatening profitability and continued development of other energy sources. Introduction of such a disruptive force as shale gas will invariably draw resistance, both monetary and political, to attack the disruptive source, or its enabler; hydraulic fracturing. Some ―anti-frack‖ charges in media articles and university studies are based in fact and require a stateby-state focused improvement of well design specific for geology of the area and oversight of overall well development. Other articles have demonstrated either a severe misunderstanding or an intentional misstatement of well development processes, apparently to attack the disruptive source. Transparency requires cooperation from all sides in the debate. To enable more transparency on the oil and gas side, both to assist in the understanding of oil and gas activities and to set a foundation for rational discussion of fracturing risks, a detailed explanation of well development activities is offered in this paper, from well construction to production, written at a level of general public understanding, along with an initial estimation of frac risk and alternatives to reduce the risk, documented by literature and case histories. This discussion is a starting point for the well development descriptions and risk evaluation discussions, not an ending point. Introduction to Risk There are no human endeavors without risk. ―Risk management is the identification, assessment and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor and control probability and/or impact of unfortunate effects‖ (Wikipedia). Managing these risks and communicating both risks and changes to reduce risks are part of an often repeated approach termed ―license to operate‖ (Liroff, 2011). At a minimum, basic risk concerns are: People, Economic Loss (to all concerned), Environmental Damage and Reputation Loss. Figure 1, a standard loss matrix used by Apache Canada in the Horn River development (DeMong, 2010), is a good starting place for the discussion. Consequences run from slight and practically unavoidable to severe and avoidable at all costs. This paper, for purposes of brevity, will focus solely on risk to the environment from hydraulic fracturing operations, starting with transport of materials and ending when the well is routed to the production facilities and gas sales begin. The form of Figure 1 will be expanded and comments and

Cornucopia or curse? Reviewing the costs and benefits of shale gas hydraulic fracturing (fracking)

Abstract: This study assesses the overall technical, economic, environmental, and social costs and benefits of the hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) of natural gas. Drawn from a review of more than 100 studies looking at shale gas in the past 10 years, most of them peer-reviewed, this article begins by briefly explaining the process of hydrofracking and summarizing recent market trends up until late 2013. Then, the study discusses a series of advantages and disadvantages to hydrofracking. It notes that done properly, shale gas development can enhance energy security and the availability of energy fuels, lower natural gas prices, offer a cleaner environmental footprint than some other fossil fuels, and enable local economic development. However, done poorly production can be prone to accidents and leakage, contribute to environmental degradation, induce earthquakes, and, when externalities are accounted for, produce more net economic losses than profits. The study concludes that the pursuit and utilization of shale gas thus presents policymakers, planners, and investors with a series of pernicious tradeoffs and tough choices.

Soft power and soft disempowerment: Qatar, global sport and football’s 2022 World Cup finals

Abstract: This paper examines the critical role of global sport within Qatar’s international strategy, most notably through the successful bid to stage the 2022 football World Cup. Our discussion draws particularly on interviews with key stakeholders in the Qatari sport system, as well as fieldwork in Qatar and the analysis of relevant documents and secondary materials. The paper is separated into five main parts. First, we set out our theoretical framework, which draws on the concepts of globalization and soft power; to assist in the analysis of Qatar’s engagement with global sport, we introduce the two further concepts of ‘glocal consciousness’ and ‘soft disempowerment’. Second, we provide the reader with background information on Qatar and Qatari sport. Third, we discuss three key themes that emerged mainly from our interviews on Qatar and global sport: exhibiting Qatar’s supremacies as a microstate; the pursuit of peace, security and integrity; and confronting national health crises. Fourth, we explore issues o...