抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

The modern science of networks has brought significant advances to our understanding of complex systems. One of the most relevant features of graphs representing real systems is community structure, or clustering, i. e. the organization of vertices in clusters, with many edges joining vertices of the same cluster and comparatively few edges joining vertices of different clusters. Such clusters, or communities, can be considered as fairly independent compartments of a graph, playing a similar role like, e. g., the tissues or the organs in the human body. Detecting communities is of great importance in sociology, biology and computer science, disciplines where systems are often represented as graphs. This problem is very hard and not yet satisfactorily solved, despite the huge effort of a large interdisciplinary community of scientists working on it over the past few years. We will attempt a thorough exposition of the topic, from the definition of the main elements of the problem, to the presentation of most methods developed, with a special focus on techniques designed by statistical physicists, from the discussion of crucial issues like the significance of clustering and how methods should be tested and compared against each other, to the description of applications to real networks.

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Community detection in graphs

The structure and dynamics of multilayer networks

A great variety of systems in nature, society and technology -- from the web of sexual contacts to the Internet, from the nervous system to power grids -- can be modeled as graphs of vertices coupled by edges The network structure, describing how the graph is wired, helps us understand, predict and optimize the behavior of dynamical systems In many cases, however, the edges are not continuously active As an example, in networks of communication via email, text messages, or phone calls, edges represent sequences of instantaneous or practically instantaneous contacts In some cases, edges are active for non-negligible periods of time: eg, the proximity patterns of inpatients at hospitals can be represented by a graph where an edge between two individuals is on throughout the time they are at the same ward Like network topology, the temporal structure of edge activations can affect dynamics of systems interacting through the network, from disease contagion on the network of patients to information diffusion over an e-mail network In this review, we present the emergent field of temporal networks, and discuss methods for analyzing topological and temporal structure and models for elucidating their relation to the behavior of dynamical systems In the light of traditional network theory, one can see this framework as moving the information of when things happen from the dynamical system on the network, to the network itself Since fundamental properties, such as the transitivity of edges, do not necessarily hold in temporal networks, many of these methods need to be quite different from those for static networks

Temporal Networks

Network science is an interdisciplinary endeavor, with methods and applications drawn from across the natural, social, and information sciences. A prominent problem in network science is the algorithmic detection of tightly connected groups of nodes known as communities. We developed a generalized framework of network quality functions that allowed us to study the community structure of arbitrary multislice networks, which are combinations of individual networks coupled through links that connect each node in one network slice to itself in other slices. This framework allows studies of community structure in a general setting encompassing networks that evolve over time, have multiple types of links (multiplexity), and have multiple scales.

/pdf/community-structure-in-time-dependent-multiscale-and-577vju19tw.pdf

Community Structure in Time-Dependent, Multiscale, and Multiplex Networks

We formulate a spectral graph-partitioning algorithm that uses the two leading eigenvectors of the matrix corresponding to a selected quality function to split a network into three communities in a single step. In so doing, we extend the recursive bipartitioning methods developed by Newman [M. E. J. Newman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 8577 (2006); Phys. Rev. E 74, 036104 (2006)] to allow one to consider the best available two-way and three-way divisions at each recursive step. We illustrate the method using simple "bucket brigade" examples and then apply the algorithm to examine the community structures of the coauthorship graph of network scientists and of U. S. Congressional networks inferred from roll call voting similarities.

/pdf/spectral-tripartitioning-of-networks-4q729fpp6n.pdf

Spectral tripartitioning of networks.

We formulate a spectral graph-partitioning algorithm that uses the two leading eigenvectors of the matrix corresponding to a selected quality function to split a network into three communities in a single step. In so doing, we extend the recursive bipartitioning methods developed by Newman [Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103, 8577 (2006); Phys. Rev. E 74, 036104 (2006)] to allow one to consider the best available two-way and three-way divisions at each recursive step. We illustrate the method using simple "bucket brigade" examples and then apply the algorithm to examine the community structures of the coauthorship graph of network scientists and of U. S. Congressional networks inferred from roll-call voting similarities.

Beyond Bisection: Eigenvector-Based Partitioning of Networks into Multiple Communities

Thomas Richardson, Peter J. Mucha, and Mason A. Porter Carolina Center for Interdisciplinary Applied Mathematics, Department of Mathematics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3250, USA; Institute for Advanced Materials, Nanoscience and Technology University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and Oxford Centre for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, OX1 3LB, United Kingdom (Dated: December 15, 2008)

Thomas Richardson

Papers

Community Structure in Time-Dependent, Multiscale, and Multiplex Networks

Spectral tripartitioning of networks.

Beyond Bisection: Eigenvector-Based Partitioning of Networks into Multiple Communities

Beyond Bisection: Spectral Partitioning of Networks into Multiple Communities